This study measures the shading properties of tree branches as they affect the amount of available sunlight (insolation) reaching structures placed within the visible tree shadow. Measurement was accomplished by placing a grid in throughout the entire shadow pattern formed, by each study tree between the hours of 9:00 am and 3:00 pm. Data was collected at each point of the grid to determine the percent insolation blockage or penetration, through a tree canopy. This data was then transferred to a graphed tree shadow pattern and interpolated to create tree shading density contours in the tree shadow pattern. Data was analyzed to determine the effects of sample tree shadow patterns upon the passive solar heat gain of windows located within the tree shadow. This study offers as a guide to future research, the beginning of a tree typology. The typology categories trees commonly grown and available in Virginia, into form and size categories. The typology also begins to assimilate data collected by other researchers on summer and winter canopy densities, leaf drop, and leaf onset periods. The typology creates a framework for future research and serves as a means to record which trees have been investigated, and which have not. Another attribute of the typology is its potential benefit to designers. It can be utilized as a tree selection tool for energy-conserving landscape designs. Several additional questions and suggested improvements for data collection have been provided for those who care to continue research into this area. / Master of Landscape Architecture

A preliminary experiment evaluated the effect of plant growth regulators (PGRs) or mechanical stimulation (brushing) on branching of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), cilantro (Coriandrum sativium L.), and parsley (Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nyman ex A.W. Hill). Dikegulac sodium increased branching in sweet basil up to 400 ppm and thereafter branching decreased compared to control plants. Ethephon increased branching in sweet basil as rate increased up to 500 mg/L compared to control plants. Mechanical stimulation resulted in a significant decrease in plant height, plant width, number of branches, and number of leaders for all species compared to control plants. Benzyladenine and metaconazole had no effect on these species. In the main experiment the effect of colored shade cloth and PGRs or brushing were assessed on sweet basil, Thai basil (Ocimum basilicum "Siam Queen" L.), Genovese basil (Ocimum basilicum "Genovese" L.), cilantro, and parsley. All crops were grown under conventional black, blue ChromatiNet®, or red ChromatiNet® shade cloth. Subplot treatments included: dikegulac sodium at 400 ppm; benzyladenine at 300 ppm; ethephon at 350 ppm; brushing at 10 strokes applied twice daily. We assessed volatile compunds on all crops and conducted a sensory panel on sweet basil. Red shade cloth increased the number of branches and shoot fresh weight in sweet basil, Thai basil, and Genovese basil. Number of leaf stalks and shoot fresh weight also increased in cilantro plants grown under red shade cloth. Red shade cloth increased fresh weight of parsley plants. Sensory panel results showed a preference for the appearance of sweet basil grown under red shade cloth. Red shade cloth can be used to grow sweet basil, Thai basil, Genovese basil, cilantro, and parsley plants that have more branches and higher fresh weights. / Master of Science

In this thesis the writer has tried to distinguish the logical approaches to the fundamental problems of accounting; in other words, to show the owners, who are limited in the knowledge of accounting principles the simplest and most practical method of keeping adequate accounting records. In content, the present system is primarily a study of a corporation, its cost accounting, general accounting and financial problems. Although the material, in so far as it consists of a statement of general principles, is equally applicable to other types of organizations in the same industry. The present thesis is divided into two major parts; the accounting system and the cost system. The accounting system deals with accounting for assets and accounting for liabilities; the cost system involves accounting for materials, accounting for labor, accounting for manufacturing expenses and accounting for selling and administrative expenses. The emphasis of the thesis is laid upon the cost system. Sections are devoted to fundamental principles, to simply record-keeping, to classification and valuation. The arrangement and use of financial and operating statements, and unit cost to be developed from them are given consideration. The former part, the accounting system, is treated according to sound accounting principles used throughout the industry. / M.S.

Although a common plant response to environmental gradients, leaf trait plasticity is often uncharted in agroforestry systems. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a i) local-scale gradient (light, nutrients) induced by shade tree diversity and ii) large-scale gradient (climato-edaphic) induced by altitude on coffee plant response on multiple agroforestry research farms in Costa Rica. Results show large variability of coffee traits: leaf photosynthetic rates, specific leaf area (SLA) and number of fruiting nodes deviate along both gradients. Mean SLA increased with increasing shade tree diversity. However, with increasing altitude, full sun coffee photosynthesized at higher rates than shaded coffee. Concurrently, other coffee leaf physiological and morphological traits differentiated between full sun and shaded coffee with increasing altitude. Results suggest soil moisture and light availability dominate environmental correlates to intraspecific coffee trait plasticity, providing insight to sources of coffee performance variability in monoculture and agroforestry systems.

Although a common plant response to environmental gradients, leaf trait plasticity is often uncharted in agroforestry systems. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of a i) local-scale gradient (light, nutrients) induced by shade tree diversity and ii) large-scale gradient (climato-edaphic) induced by altitude on coffee plant response on multiple agroforestry research farms in Costa Rica. Results show large variability of coffee traits: leaf photosynthetic rates, specific leaf area (SLA) and number of fruiting nodes deviate along both gradients. Mean SLA increased with increasing shade tree diversity. However, with increasing altitude, full sun coffee photosynthesized at higher rates than shaded coffee. Concurrently, other coffee leaf physiological and morphological traits differentiated between full sun and shaded coffee with increasing altitude. Results suggest soil moisture and light availability dominate environmental correlates to intraspecific coffee trait plasticity, providing insight to sources of coffee performance variability in monoculture and agroforestry systems.

No description available.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o comportamento de pastejo de bovinos de corte com e sem acesso a recursos de sombreamento e determinar o Índice de Tolerância ao Calor Individual (ITCI) e uma possível relação com o uso da sombra. Foram utilizados 8 touros da raça Simental, com 80 meses. As observações de comportamento ocorreram do nascer ao pôr do sol, a cada 15 minutos, pelo método focal. Os comportamentos observados foram: Posição (ao sol, à sombra natural, à sombra artificial); Postura (em pé, deitado) e Atividade (em pastejo, em ruminação, em deslocamento, em ócio), em três tratamentos: Sombra Natural (SN), Sombra Artificial (SA) e sem sombra (SS). Numa segunda fase os animais foram submetidos ao Teste de Tolerância ao Calor e foi determinado o ITCI. O índice de globo negro e umidade médio foi de 88,5. O uso da sombra foi maior no SA em relação ao SN (43% e 32%) iniciando mais cedo e deixando-a mais tarde (10h00 e 16h00 no SA, 10h30 e 15h00 no SN). Os animais permaneceram mais tempo em pé no SS, seguido pelo SN e pelo SA (86,5%, 80,6%, 73,7%). No tratamento SN os animais pastejaram 65,4% do tempo total de observação, ruminaram 18,3%, permaneceram em ócio 15,9% e a atividade de deslocamento tomou 0,5% do tempo. No tratamento SA, as atividades foram divididas em 54,7% para o pastejo, 22,9% para ruminação, 21,2% para ócio e 1,2% para deslocamento. No tratamento SS, o pastejo ocorreu em 50,3% do tempo, 6,2% do tempo foi gasto com ruminação, 41,7% em ócio e 1,7% com deslocamento. Houve diferença estatística entre os três tratamentos (P<0,01) para todas as atividades analisadas. Verificou-se a interferência da disponibilidade de sombra e do tipo de sombra na distribuição das atividades ao longo do dia. Os animais que tiveram acesso à sombra natural sem restrição de espaço e com ótima ventilação devido às altas copas das árvores gastaram menos tempo em ruminação e ócio e mais tempo com o pastejo. O índice de tolerância ao calor médio foi de 9,33, com máximo de 9,57 e mínimo de 9,03. A relação entre o ITC e a busca pela sombra teve média-alta correlação (0,62) mas sem ser considerada significativa devido ao baixo número de repetições. / The objective of this study was to analyse the grazing behavior of beef cattle with and without shade and to determine the Individual Heat Tolerance Index (ITCI) and a possible relationship with the utilization of shade. The behavioral patterns of eight Simental bulls were observed during the day light, every 15 minutes, using a focal sampling method. The categories observed were the position (in the sun or under the shade), the posture (standing up or lying down) and the activities (grazing, ruminating, moving or resting). In three different treatments: natural shade (SN), artificial shade (SA) and no shade (SS). In a second stage the animals were submitted to the Heat Tolerance Test and the ITCI was calculated. The mean of black globe and humidity index was 88,5. The shade was more used in SA than in SN (43% e 32%), getting in there earlier and leaving it later (10h00 and 16h00 in SA, 10h30 and 15h00 in SN). The animals stayed more standing up in SS, followed by SN and SA (86,5%, 80,6%, 73,7%). In the SN treatment the animals grazed 65,4% of the total time of observation, ruminated 18,3%, rested 15,9% and moved 0,5%. In the SA treatment the animals grazed 54,7% of the total time of observation, ruminated 22,9%, rested 21,2% and moved 1,2%. In the SS treatment the animals grazed 50,3% of the total time of observation, ruminated 6,2%, rested 41,7% and moved 1,7%. There was statistic difference between the three treatments (P<0,01) for all the analyzed activities. There was interference of the availability of shade and kind of shade in the diary activities. The mean of the ITCI was 9,33, with maximum of 9,57 and minimum of 9,03. The relationship between ITCI and seek for shade had high correlation (0,62) but no statistic evidence because of the small repetition.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar e quantificar o efeito do sombreamento artificial proporcionado por diferentes tipos de materiais de cobertura sobre a fisiologia, o comportamento e o desenvolvimento de novilhas leiteiras, em ambiente de pastagens. A pesquisa foi realizada no período de 08/01/2007 à 30/04/2007. A área experimental foi dividida em 16 parcelas adjacentes e iguais com 84 m² cada. Foram comparados a testemunha (sem sombra) com três tipos de cobertura: telhas de fibrocimento sem cimento amianto, telhas galvanizadas e tela de polipropileno 80% As dimensões dos abrigos foram 2m x 4m e 4m de altura (4m² de sombra.animal-1), sem paredes laterais. Foram utilizadas 16 novilhas Holandesas e 16 Hol x Jersey com idade e peso iniciais de 17,2 ± 5,6 meses e 265,3 ± 66,9kg, respectivamente, pareadas em função da uniformidade de peso e idade. As novilhas permaneciam em piquetes de capim elefante (Penissetum purpureum) durante a noite e após as 9:00h eram conduzidas para as parcelas. A tgn foi registrada por minidatalogger conectado a globo negro para cálculo de CTR e ITGU em cada parcela. As variáveis meteorológicas foram obtidas no posto agrometeorológico da ESALQ/USP. Semanalmente foram registradas FR, TR e TP. As observações comportamentais foram realizadas em dias não consecutivos por 24 horas pelo método focal. As pesagens dos animais foram realizadas mensalmente. As condições ambientais durante o período da pesquisa foram caracterizadas como estressantes para novilhas. A análise física dos materiais (tgn, CTR e ITGU) indicou diferença entre os materiais de cobertura (P<0,05) sendo a telhas de fibrocimento sem amianto a mais confortável termicamente, seguida da telha galvanizada e da tela. Os valores de FR foram menores sob as telhas de fibrocimento (P<0,05) e semelhantes entre telha galvanizada e tela (P>0,05), os valores de TR não apresentaram diferença entre tratamentos somente entre horários e para a TP houve diferença (P<0,05) entre o tratamento fibrocimento e a testemunha, porém não houve entre os demais (P>0,05). A FR apresentou as respostas mais imediatas às alterações ambientais. Houve correlação da TR com a FR e a TP. Não foram observadas alterações comportamentais entre os tratamentos, os animais ficaram sob as sombras nas horas mais quentes do dia, preferencialmente em pé, o comportamento diário seguiu os padrões conhecidos para bovinos. O ganho de peso não foi alterado pelos tratamentos. A análise de custo indicou a cobertura de fibrocimento como a mais indicada para a construção de abrigos considerando-se os resultados encontrados. A pesquisa indicou haver melhora no bem estar térmico das novilhas, porém, não conseguiu determinar ganhos efetivos na utilização da sombra. / The objective of the present study was to evaluate and quantify the effect of artificial shade given by different types of roofing materials on the physiology, behavior and development of dairy heifers in a pasture environment. The present study took place from January 8, 2007 to April 30, 2007. The experimental area was divided into 16 equal, adjacent plots with 84 m2. Three roofing treatments (fiber-cement roofing tiles without amianthus, galvanized roofing tiles and 80% polypropylene screen) were compared to a control (no shade). Shelter structures had no lateral walls and measured 2m x 4m x 4m height (4m² shaded per animal). Animals consisted of 16 Holstein heifers and 16 Holstein x Jersey heifers with initial age and weight being 17.2 ± 5.6 months and 265.3 ± 66.9 kg, respectively. Animals were equally distributed among the treatments according to weight and age. At night, heifers were kept in fields with Pennisetum purpureum, also known as elephant grass. After 9:00 am, animals were taken to the experimental plots. Black globe thermometer temperature (tbg) was measured using a mini-datalogger connected to a black globe. Values were then used to calculate Radiant Thermic Load (RTL) and Black Globe Humidity Index (BGHI) of each plot. Meteorological variables were obtained from the agricultural-meteorological post at the ESALQ/USP. Respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST) were registered weekly. Behavioral observations were recorded every other day using the focal method. Animals were weighed monthly. Environmental conditions during the research period were characterized as stressful for the heifers. Physical analysis of the material (tbg, RTL and BGHI) indicated the roofing treatments to be significantly different (P<0.05), with the fiber-cement roofing tiles without amianthus to be the most comfortable regarding temperature, followed by the galvanized roofing tiles and the 80% polypropylene screens. Respiration rate was lower under the fiber-cement roofing tiles (P<0.05) and similar under the galvanized tiles and polypropylene screen (P>0.05). RR values were lower under the fiber-cement tiles (P<0.05) and similar under the galvanized roofing tiles and polypropylene screen (P>0.05). There were no significant differences in RT values among treatments; however, a difference was found among data collection times. Concerning ST, fiber-cement tiles were significantly different from the control (P<0.05). On the other hand, there were no significant differences regarding ST among the other treatments (P>0.05). RR presented the most immediate response to environmental alterations. RT presented correlation with RR and ST. No behavioral alterations were observed among the treatments. Daily behavior followed known bovine patterns. Weight gain was not altered by the treatments. A cost analysis indicated fibercement roofing tiles to be better for shelter construction. The present study also indicated improved heifer thermal well-being; however, no effective gains could be determined from shade use.

Orientador: Ciro Antonio Rosolem / Banca: Marcelo de Almeida Silva / Banca: Fábio Rafael Echer / Banca: Ederaldo José Chiavegato / Banca: Julio Cesar Bogiani / Resumo: A limitação de luz reduz a produtividade do algodoeiro (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Não há, porém, indicações do efeito de doses de N sobre plantas nessa condição. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o desempenho agronômico da cultura do algodoeiro em função da adubação nitrogenada sob restrição luminosa. Quatro experimentos de campo foram conduzidos para avaliar a produtividade, os componentes de produção, a distribuição de capulhos e a qualidade da fibra durante os anos de 2016 e 2017 no Brasil: Primavera do Leste/MT (I); Itapeva/SP, em áreas não irrigada (II) e irrigada (III); e Chapadão do Sul/MS (IV). Nos experimentos III e IV, estudou-se também a precocidade das plantas a partir da distribuição da produção de capulhos segundo a escala fenológica. Em todos os experimentos, sombreamento foi imposto no início do florescimento, mantendo-se uma tela de cor preta (42% de redução de radiação global) sobre as plantas por um período entre 16 e 25 dias dependendo do experimento; e foram realizadas duas adubações de N em cobertura, uma durante a fase dos primeiros botões florais e outra no início do florescimento. Nos experimentos I, II e III, testaram-se as doses de N em cobertura de 0, 60, 120 e 180 kg ha-1 em combinação com presença ou ausência de sombreamento, em delineamento de blocos ao acaso em esquema fatorial 2 x 4. No experimento IV, os cultivares FM 983 GLT (de ciclo tardio) e EB 1405 GLT (de ciclo precoce) foram testados nas doses de N em cobertura de 0, 80 e 160 kg ha-1... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Light limitation decreases cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) yield. However, there are no reports of N fertilization effects on cotton plants under these conditions. The objective of this work was to evaluate the agronomic performance of the cotton crop as a function of N rates under light restriction. Four experiments were conducted in Brazil in 2016 and 2017 seasons: Primavera do Leste/MT (I); Itapeva/SP, in non-irrigated (II) and irrigated (III) areas; and Chapadão do Sul/MS (IV). In experiments III and IV, crop earliness was also studied from boll distribution data according to the phenological scale. In all experiments, shading was imposed at the early flowering phase by placing a black shade fabric (42% reduction in global radiation) on plant‟s canopy for a period ranging from 16 to 25 days, depending on the experiment; and two topdressing N applications were made, the first at early squaring and the second at early flowering. In experiments I, II and III, N rates of 0, 60, 120 and 180 kg ha-1 in combination with or without shading were tested in complete randomized blocks arranged in a 2 x 4 factorial scheme. In experiment IV, the cultivars FM 983 GLT (late-cycle) and EB 1405 GLT (early-cycle) were subjected to N topdressing rates of 0, 80 and 160 kg N ha-1, with or without shading, in complete randomized blocks arranged in a 2 x 3 x 2 factorial scheme. Shading decreased lint yield by 10.1 and 11.6% in experiments I and IV, as a result of the reduction in boll number at the lower third of the plant by 24.0 and 31.8%, respectively. In experiment II, shading had no effects on lint yield and boll distribution. In experiment III, the plants were highly responsive to N, and the shade treatment reduced the number of bolls at the lower fruiting branches by 18.6%, but the respective effect in reducing lint yield was only verified at 0 kg N ha-1, by 10.0%. Shading affected the average boll weight only ... / Doutor

Land use practices and exposure to low impact disturbances associated with an urban environment can alter forest structure and function. Past and ongoing research in Forest Park, a large urban forest in Portland, Oregon, suggests that mature mixed Douglas-fir (Psuedotsuga meziesii)-hardwood stands in the more urban end of the park lack a shade-tolerant conifer understory composed of the late successional conifer tree species, such western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western red-cedar (Thuja plicata). 5-year plot remeasurement data that characterizes productivity and mortality patterns did not show a strong relationship to urban proximity. Plot productivity was generally consistent with values taken from studies of other similarly aged (~100 years old) Douglas-fir /Western Hemlock stands. Mortality was highest in rural plots, and was driven by large windthrow events to canopy trees. Soil organic matter, soil pH, and depth of organic horizon indicated a legacy of soil impact in urban areas most impacted by past intensive logging. The urban mature plot had higher mean soil pH at site (5.87, se: ±0.06) compared to a rural mature, and old growth reference sites located within the park. Although surface organic and A layer soil horizon depth was thinnest at the urban mature site, soil organic matter was not found to be significantly different across sites. Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data showed that old-growth plots and plots in the middle section of the park had the highest degree of canopy structure as measured by Rumple and standard deviation of point elevation. Measures of stand height showed OG plots and urban plots to have the tallest trees. Rural plots showed a high degree of variability in all LiDAR metrics, showing a wider range of stand height and complexity than urban and middle plots. These results suggest that past land-use and urban proximity affect plot level productivity, soil quality, and above-ground canopy structure in Forest Park. These results clarify how the lack of late-successional tree species might be most linked to differing histories of intensive logging activity within the park. Reduced old-growth legacy features (remnant seed trees, coarse woody debris) in plots with a clear history of aggressive clear-cuts has led to a reduction in regeneration of western hemlock and western red-cedar in the understory.