Our climate and our cities are changing. Though their changes are not completely dependent upon one another, there is still a coupling effect between them. This study assesses the role of urban form as it pertains to elements of climate change. It is comprised of two essays intended for publication. The first of these essays addresses the feedbacks between urban form, energy consumption, and rising global temperatures. The second essay looks at one particular factor of urban form--tree type--as it pertains to air pollution and urban heat island mitigation. Both papers use the analytical approaches necessary to answer the questions they pose, not ubiquitous over-generalizing modeling software or methods found often in the literature. As seen in the analyses, this practice--known as geocomputation--allows for a deeper and more accurate description of complex spatial relationships.

Western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) is an important component of the montane forest in southeastern British Columbia. It grows in cool-temperate (IDF and ICH zones) and boreal climates (MS zone and, occasionally, ESSF zone). Larch is considered a very shade-intolerant species which can tolerate low light (partial shading) only during the seedling stage (the first 5 growing seasons). Typically, it regenerates after fire in the open on seedbeds exposed by burning. However, to what extent it tolerates low light and how various light environments affect its survival and growth is not known. The objective of our study was to determine the variation in survival and growth of western larch seedlings in relation to light availability and site conditions.

Effective daylighting can substantially reduce the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of commercial buildings. Daylight is also healthy for building occupants, and contributes to occupant satisfaction. When productivity improvements are considered, effective daylighting is also highly attractive financially. However, successful daylighting of sub-tropical buildings is a very difficult task, due to high direct irradiances and excessive solar shading. A device was created that combined effective solar shading and efficient daylight redirection. The micro-light guiding shade panel achieves all objectives of an optimal daylighting device placed on the façade of a sub-tropical, high rise office building. Its design is based on the principles of non-imaging optics. This provides highly efficient designs offering control over delivered illumination, within the constraints of the second law of thermodynamics. Micro-light guiding shade panels were constructed and installed on a test building. The tested devices delivered daylight deep into the building under all conditions. Some glare was experienced with a poorly chosen translucent material. Glare was eliminated by replacing this material. Construction of the panels could be improved by application of mass-manufacturing techniques including metal pressing. For the micro-light guiding shade panel to be utilised to its full potential, building designers must understand its impact on building performance early in the design process. Thus, the device must be modelled with lighting simulation software currently in use by building design firms. The device was successfully modelled by the RADIANCE lighting simulator. RADIANCE predictions compared well with measurements, providing bias generally less than 10%. Simulations greatly aided further development of the micro-light guiding shade panel. Several new RADIANCE algorithms were developed to improve daylight simulation in general.

[pt] O processo de renderização fotoreal para cinema e TV demanda, cada vez mais, poder de processamento, necessitando não só de algoritmos paralelos, bem como sistema de distribuição de tarefas. No entanto, mesmo em sistemas de produção, o tempo necessário para avaliar uma animação pode chegar a vários dias, dificultando a melhoria da qualidade artística e limitando alterações. Neste trabalho foca-se na otimização de três processos inerentes à renderização, a renderização local, na qual o sistema trabalha para renderizar um conjunto de pixels de forma otimizada, aproveitando os recursos de hardware disponíveis e aproveitando dados de renderizações previamente realizadas, pelo nó ou teste. O processo de gerenciamento, extremamente crítico para o resultado, é alterado para não só distribuir, mas analisar toda a infraestrutura de renderização, otimizando o processo de distribuição e permitindo o estabelecimento de metas como prazo e custo. Além disso, o modelo de gerenciamento é expandido para a nuvem, utilizando-a como transbordo de processamento. Ainda, um novo processo foi criado para avaliar a renderização de forma colaborativa, onde cada nó comunica resultados parciais e assim otimiza a renderização de outros. Por fim, diversas técnicas inovadoras foram criadas para melhorar o processo como um todo, removendo desperdícios e reaproveitando trabalho. / [en] The photorealistic rendering process for cinema and TV increasingly demands processing power, requiring fast parallel algorithms and effective task distribution systems. However, the processes currently used by the academia and by the industry still consume several days to evaluate an animation in super-resolution (typically 8K), what makes difficult the improvement of artistic quality and limits the number of experiments with scene parameters. In this work, we focus on the optimization of three processes involved in photorealistic rendering, reducing the total time of rendering substantially. Firstly, we optimize the local rendering, in which the system works to render a set of pixels optimally, taking advantage of the available hardware resources and using previous rendering data. Secondly, we optimize the management process, which is changed not only to distribute frames but also to analyze all the rendering infrastructure, optimizing the distribution process and allowing the establishment of goals as time and cost. Furthermore, the management model is expanded to the cloud, using the cloud as a processing overflow. Thirdly, we propose a new optimized process to evaluate the rendering task collaboratively, where each node communicates partial results to other nodes, allowing the optimization of the rendering process in all nodes. Altogether, this thesis is an innovative proposal to improve the whole process of high-performance rendering, removing waste of resources and reducing rework.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study aimed at evaluating the influence of the shade of both the crown and the ground in the development of sprouts of a plantation of Ilex paraguariensis after pruning. The experiment was carried out at the Experimental Area of the Federal University of Santa Maria. An experiment with 4 treatments in a randomized block design with 12 repetitions with 1 plant in each repetition was established. The yerba mate plants were pruned at 0,60 m high and the following treatments were used: T1 = Without crown shade, without soil coverage, T2 = Without crown shade, with soil coverage, T3 = With crown shade, without soil coverage, T4 = With crown shade, with soil coverage. The material used as organic coverage on the soil was the burlap from an eucalyptus plantation and the material from the pruning of Ilex paraguariensis. The crown shade of the trees was gotten by the use of a 50% shade screen, where the plants of Ilex Paraguariensis were shaded after midday. In September 2007, the trees were measured dendrometrically, their biomass was fractioned and, after that, these trees were submitted to their own treatments. In September 2008, plants of Ilex Paraguariensis were evaluated again. In order to determine the commercial biomass, 16 plants of yerba mate were collected; to the others, the commercial biomass was estimated by the sum of the biomass of the sprouts. It was verified that the green weight of the commercial biomass (bc) of plants of Ilex paraguariensis which had never been pruned had bigger correlation with the basal area at 0,6 m high (g0,6) and, in second place, with the total height (ht); the model that best described the commercial biomass of plants which had never been pruned was: ln bc = 9,6533 + 0,4412 ln (g0,6.ht); the commercial biomass of the sprouts can be estimated as function of the leafed length of the sprouts, with specific models for short sprouts, simple medium sprouts and composed medium sprouts; the partial shade of the yerba mate and the addition of dead coverage (T4) overcame the other treatments for all the variables; the addition of dead coverage (T2) generated bigger average than the crown shade itself (T3), for the variables sum of the leafed length, sum of the total length and commercial biomass; the pruned yerba mate plants' commercial biomass presented bigger correlation sum of leafed length, sum of total length and sum of number of leaves; the variable of easy measurement that best estimated the pruned yerba mate plants' commercial biomass was the medium length of the three longer branches (c3), resulting in the following equation: ln bc = 1,4722. ln c3; the correlation of the yerba mate plants' commercial biomass in the year 2007 with the commercial biomass in the year 2008 was 65%. The covariance analysis indicated that there was effect of the treatments only for error probability close to 10%. / Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a influência do sombreamento tanto da copa quanto do solo no desenvolvimento de brotações em um plantio de Ilex paraguariensis após a poda. O experimento foi conduzido na Área Experimental do Departamento de Ciências Florestais da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, no município de Santa Maria. Foi estabelecido um experimento com 4 tratamentos no delineamento de Blocos ao Acaso com 12 repetições, com 1 planta em cada repetição. As erveiras foram podadas a 0,60 m de altura e os seguintes tratamentos foram empregados: T1 = Sem sombreamento de copa, sem cobertura de solo; T2 = Sem sombreamento de copa, com cobertura de solo; T3 = Com sombreamento de copa, sem cobertura de solo; T4 = Com sombreamento de copa, com cobertura de solo. O material usado como cobertura do solo foi a serapilheira de um plantio de eucalipto e o material resultante da poda das erveiras. O sombreamento da copa das árvores foi realizado mediante o uso de tela plástica, com grau de sombreamento de 50%, em que as erveiras ficaram sombreadas a partir das 12 horas do dia. Em setembro de 2007, as árvores foram avaliadas dendrometricamente e podadas, sua biomassa foi fracionada e, após, estas foram submetidas aos seus respectivos tratamentos. Em setembro de 2008, as erveiras foram avaliadas novamente. Para determinar a biomassa comercial, foram colhidas 16 erveiras, para as demais, a biomassa comercial foi estimada pelo somatório da biomassa dos brotos. Verificou-se que: o peso verde da biomassa comercial (bc) de erveiras nunca podadas teve maior correlação com a área basal a 0,6 m de altura (g0,6) e, em segundo, com a altura total (ht); o modelo que melhor descreveu a biomassa comercial de erveiras nunca podadas foi: ln bc= 9,6533 + 0,4412 ln (g0,6.ht); a biomassa comercial dos brotos pode ser estimada como função do comprimento folhado dos brotos, com modelos específicos para brotos curtos, brotos médios simples e compostos e brotos longos compostos; o sombreamento parcial da erva-mate juntamente com a adição de cobertura morta (T4) superou os demais tratamentos para todas as variáveis; a adição de cobertura morta (T2) gerou maior média do que somente o sombreamento da copa (T3), para as variáveis somatório do comprimento folhado, somatório do comprimento total e biomassa comercial; a biomassa comercial das erveiras podadas apresentou maior correlação com o somatório do comprimento folhado, somatório do comprimento total e somatório do número de folhas; a variável de fácil medição que melhor estimou a biomassa comercial de erveiras podadas foi o comprimento médio dos três ramos mais longos (c3), resultando na seguinte equação: ln bc = 1,4722 ln c3; a correlação da biomassa comercial de erveiras do ano de 2007 com a biomassa comercial do ano de 2008 foi de r=0,65. A análise de covariância indicou que houve efeito dos tratamentos somente para probabilidades de erros próximas a 10%.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o comportamento de pastejo de bovinos de corte com e sem acesso a recursos de sombreamento e determinar o Índice de Tolerância ao Calor Individual (ITCI) e uma possível relação com o uso da sombra. Foram utilizados 8 touros da raça Simental, com 80 meses. As observações de comportamento ocorreram do nascer ao pôr do sol, a cada 15 minutos, pelo método focal. Os comportamentos observados foram: Posição (ao sol, à sombra natural, à sombra artificial); Postura (em pé, deitado) e Atividade (em pastejo, em ruminação, em deslocamento, em ócio), em três tratamentos: Sombra Natural (SN), Sombra Artificial (SA) e sem sombra (SS). Numa segunda fase os animais foram submetidos ao Teste de Tolerância ao Calor e foi determinado o ITCI. O índice de globo negro e umidade médio foi de 88,5. O uso da sombra foi maior no SA em relação ao SN (43% e 32%) iniciando mais cedo e deixando-a mais tarde (10h00 e 16h00 no SA, 10h30 e 15h00 no SN). Os animais permaneceram mais tempo em pé no SS, seguido pelo SN e pelo SA (86,5%, 80,6%, 73,7%). No tratamento SN os animais pastejaram 65,4% do tempo total de observação, ruminaram 18,3%, permaneceram em ócio 15,9% e a atividade de deslocamento tomou 0,5% do tempo. No tratamento SA, as atividades foram divididas em 54,7% para o pastejo, 22,9% para ruminação, 21,2% para ócio e 1,2% para deslocamento. No tratamento SS, o pastejo ocorreu em 50,3% do tempo, 6,2% do tempo foi gasto com ruminação, 41,7% em ócio e 1,7% com deslocamento. Houve diferença estatística entre os três tratamentos (P<0,01) para todas as atividades analisadas. Verificou-se a interferência da disponibilidade de sombra e do tipo de sombra na distribuição das atividades ao longo do dia. Os animais que tiveram acesso à sombra natural sem restrição de espaço e com ótima ventilação devido às altas copas das árvores gastaram menos tempo em ruminação e ócio e mais tempo com o pastejo. O índice de tolerância ao calor médio foi de 9,33, com máximo de 9,57 e mínimo de 9,03. A relação entre o ITC e a busca pela sombra teve média-alta correlação (0,62) mas sem ser considerada significativa devido ao baixo número de repetições. / The objective of this study was to analyse the grazing behavior of beef cattle with and without shade and to determine the Individual Heat Tolerance Index (ITCI) and a possible relationship with the utilization of shade. The behavioral patterns of eight Simental bulls were observed during the day light, every 15 minutes, using a focal sampling method. The categories observed were the position (in the sun or under the shade), the posture (standing up or lying down) and the activities (grazing, ruminating, moving or resting). In three different treatments: natural shade (SN), artificial shade (SA) and no shade (SS). In a second stage the animals were submitted to the Heat Tolerance Test and the ITCI was calculated. The mean of black globe and humidity index was 88,5. The shade was more used in SA than in SN (43% e 32%), getting in there earlier and leaving it later (10h00 and 16h00 in SA, 10h30 and 15h00 in SN). The animals stayed more standing up in SS, followed by SN and SA (86,5%, 80,6%, 73,7%). In the SN treatment the animals grazed 65,4% of the total time of observation, ruminated 18,3%, rested 15,9% and moved 0,5%. In the SA treatment the animals grazed 54,7% of the total time of observation, ruminated 22,9%, rested 21,2% and moved 1,2%. In the SS treatment the animals grazed 50,3% of the total time of observation, ruminated 6,2%, rested 41,7% and moved 1,7%. There was statistic difference between the three treatments (P<0,01) for all the analyzed activities. There was interference of the availability of shade and kind of shade in the diary activities. The mean of the ITCI was 9,33, with maximum of 9,57 and minimum of 9,03. The relationship between ITCI and seek for shade had high correlation (0,62) but no statistic evidence because of the small repetition.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar e quantificar o efeito do sombreamento artificial proporcionado por diferentes tipos de materiais de cobertura sobre a fisiologia, o comportamento e o desenvolvimento de novilhas leiteiras, em ambiente de pastagens. A pesquisa foi realizada no período de 08/01/2007 à 30/04/2007. A área experimental foi dividida em 16 parcelas adjacentes e iguais com 84 m² cada. Foram comparados a testemunha (sem sombra) com três tipos de cobertura: telhas de fibrocimento sem cimento amianto, telhas galvanizadas e tela de polipropileno 80% As dimensões dos abrigos foram 2m x 4m e 4m de altura (4m² de sombra.animal-1), sem paredes laterais. Foram utilizadas 16 novilhas Holandesas e 16 Hol x Jersey com idade e peso iniciais de 17,2 ± 5,6 meses e 265,3 ± 66,9kg, respectivamente, pareadas em função da uniformidade de peso e idade. As novilhas permaneciam em piquetes de capim elefante (Penissetum purpureum) durante a noite e após as 9:00h eram conduzidas para as parcelas. A tgn foi registrada por minidatalogger conectado a globo negro para cálculo de CTR e ITGU em cada parcela. As variáveis meteorológicas foram obtidas no posto agrometeorológico da ESALQ/USP. Semanalmente foram registradas FR, TR e TP. As observações comportamentais foram realizadas em dias não consecutivos por 24 horas pelo método focal. As pesagens dos animais foram realizadas mensalmente. As condições ambientais durante o período da pesquisa foram caracterizadas como estressantes para novilhas. A análise física dos materiais (tgn, CTR e ITGU) indicou diferença entre os materiais de cobertura (P<0,05) sendo a telhas de fibrocimento sem amianto a mais confortável termicamente, seguida da telha galvanizada e da tela. Os valores de FR foram menores sob as telhas de fibrocimento (P<0,05) e semelhantes entre telha galvanizada e tela (P>0,05), os valores de TR não apresentaram diferença entre tratamentos somente entre horários e para a TP houve diferença (P<0,05) entre o tratamento fibrocimento e a testemunha, porém não houve entre os demais (P>0,05). A FR apresentou as respostas mais imediatas às alterações ambientais. Houve correlação da TR com a FR e a TP. Não foram observadas alterações comportamentais entre os tratamentos, os animais ficaram sob as sombras nas horas mais quentes do dia, preferencialmente em pé, o comportamento diário seguiu os padrões conhecidos para bovinos. O ganho de peso não foi alterado pelos tratamentos. A análise de custo indicou a cobertura de fibrocimento como a mais indicada para a construção de abrigos considerando-se os resultados encontrados. A pesquisa indicou haver melhora no bem estar térmico das novilhas, porém, não conseguiu determinar ganhos efetivos na utilização da sombra. / The objective of the present study was to evaluate and quantify the effect of artificial shade given by different types of roofing materials on the physiology, behavior and development of dairy heifers in a pasture environment. The present study took place from January 8, 2007 to April 30, 2007. The experimental area was divided into 16 equal, adjacent plots with 84 m2. Three roofing treatments (fiber-cement roofing tiles without amianthus, galvanized roofing tiles and 80% polypropylene screen) were compared to a control (no shade). Shelter structures had no lateral walls and measured 2m x 4m x 4m height (4m² shaded per animal). Animals consisted of 16 Holstein heifers and 16 Holstein x Jersey heifers with initial age and weight being 17.2 ± 5.6 months and 265.3 ± 66.9 kg, respectively. Animals were equally distributed among the treatments according to weight and age. At night, heifers were kept in fields with Pennisetum purpureum, also known as elephant grass. After 9:00 am, animals were taken to the experimental plots. Black globe thermometer temperature (tbg) was measured using a mini-datalogger connected to a black globe. Values were then used to calculate Radiant Thermic Load (RTL) and Black Globe Humidity Index (BGHI) of each plot. Meteorological variables were obtained from the agricultural-meteorological post at the ESALQ/USP. Respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature (ST) were registered weekly. Behavioral observations were recorded every other day using the focal method. Animals were weighed monthly. Environmental conditions during the research period were characterized as stressful for the heifers. Physical analysis of the material (tbg, RTL and BGHI) indicated the roofing treatments to be significantly different (P<0.05), with the fiber-cement roofing tiles without amianthus to be the most comfortable regarding temperature, followed by the galvanized roofing tiles and the 80% polypropylene screens. Respiration rate was lower under the fiber-cement roofing tiles (P<0.05) and similar under the galvanized tiles and polypropylene screen (P>0.05). RR values were lower under the fiber-cement tiles (P<0.05) and similar under the galvanized roofing tiles and polypropylene screen (P>0.05). There were no significant differences in RT values among treatments; however, a difference was found among data collection times. Concerning ST, fiber-cement tiles were significantly different from the control (P<0.05). On the other hand, there were no significant differences regarding ST among the other treatments (P>0.05). RR presented the most immediate response to environmental alterations. RT presented correlation with RR and ST. No behavioral alterations were observed among the treatments. Daily behavior followed known bovine patterns. Weight gain was not altered by the treatments. A cost analysis indicated fibercement roofing tiles to be better for shelter construction. The present study also indicated improved heifer thermal well-being; however, no effective gains could be determined from shade use.

This study investigated sustainability challenges and benefits for coffee farming with different amounts of shade management in Colombia. Data was collected from literature studies, quantitative soil analyses and interviews with farmers and other experts. The results show that shade management of coffee farms does increase ecological sustainability, but in general gives lower yields of coffee. However, shaded coffee systems have the potential of increasing economic resilience for farmers by providing diversified income possibilities. The low and fluctuating coffee price of the global market has shown to be a major challenge of sustainability for Colombian small scale coffee farms. In addition a participatory sustainability assessment of soil quality and crop health was conducted with four farmers. The results from these assessments were compared with results from quantitative analyses of soil compaction, microbiological respiration rate and organic matter content in order to evaluate the analytical reliability of the assessment. The results of the participatory assessment were shown to correlate quite well to the quantitative soil analyses. When participatory methodology was evaluated from experiences in field and literature, it was found to be an important approach in facilitating sustainability learning in local contexts. / En esta investigación se examinaron los retos y beneficios de la sostenibilidad en la producción del cultivo de café con diferentes niveles de sombra en Colombia. Los datos se colectaron de estudios de literatura, análisis de suelo y entrevistas con agricultores y expertos en el tema. Los resultados indican que el manejo con sombra incrementa la sostenibilidad ecologica de las fincas cafeteras, y esto, tiene la posibilidad de incrementar la resiliencia económica para los agricultores al ofrecer oportunidades para una producción diversificada de ingresos. El precio bajo y fluctuante del café en el mercado mundial ha demostrado ser un importante reto para la sostenibilidad de las fincas de los campesinos colombianos. Además, se realizó una evaluación de la sostenibilidad participativa de la calidad del suelo y la salud de los cultivos con cuatro agricultores. Los resultados de esta evaluación se compararon con los resultados de análisis cuantitativos: de la compactación del suelo, la tasa de respiración microbiológica y contenido de materia orgánica, con el fin de evaluar la fiabilidad analítica de la evaluación participativa. Se demostró que los resultados de la evaluación participativa tienen una estrecha relación con el análisis cuantitativo del suelo. Cuando la metodología participativa se evaluó a partir de las experiencias propias en el campo y la literatura, se encontró que puede ser un enfoque importante para facilitar el aprendizaje de sostenibilidad para los contextos locales.

C4 plants have a biochemical carbon concentrating mechanism (CCM) that increases CO2 concentration around Rubisco in the bundle sheath (BS). Maize CCM has two CO2 delivery pathways to the Bundle Sheath (BS) (respectively via malate, MAL or aspartate, ASP); rates of PGA reduction, carbohydrate synthesis and PEP regeneration vary between BS and Mesophyll (M) cells. For these anatomical and biochemical complexities, C4 plants are highly sensitive to light conditions. Under limiting light, the activity of the CCM generally decreases, causing an increase in leakiness, (Φ), the ratio of CO2 retrodiffusing from the BS relative to C4 carboxylation processes. This increase in Φ had been theoretically associated with a decrease in biochemical operating efficiency (expressed as ATP cost of gross assimilation, ATP / GA) under low light and, because a proportion of canopy photosynthesis is carried out by shaded leaves, to potential productivity losses at field scale. In C4 leaves, because of the concentric anatomy, light reaches M cells before the deeper BS (Evans et al., 2007), and could alter the energetic partitioning balance between BS and M and potentially cause efficiency losses. In this experimental programme I investigated strategies deployed by C4 plants to adjust operating efficiency under different illumination conditions. Firstly, maize plants were grown under high and low light regimes (respectively HL, 600 vs LL, 100 μE m-2 s-1). Short term acclimation of Φ was compared from isotopic discrimination (Δ), gas exchange and photochemistry using an improved modelling approach which does not suffer from elements of circularity. Long term acclimation to low light intensities brought about physiological changes which could potentially increase the operating efficiency under limiting ATP supplies. Secondly, profiles of light penetration across a leaf were used to derive the potential ATP supply for M and BS cells induced by changing light quality. Empirical measurements of net CO2 uptake, ATP production rate and carbon isotope discrimination were made on plants under a low light intensity. The overall conversion efficiency was not affected by light quality. A comprehensive metabolic model highlighted the importance of both CO2 delivery pathways in maize. Further, metabolic plasticity allowed the balancing of ATP and NADPH requirements between BS and M. Finally, I tested the hypothesis that plants can modify their physiology so as to reach a status of higher operating efficiency when exposed to high light and then to low light, so as to mimic the transition which leaves undergo when shaded by newly emerging leaves in a crop canopy. Plants were grown under high light and low light for three weeks, then, HL plants were transferred to low light for a further three weeks. Re-acclimation was very effective in reducing ATP cost of net assimilation under low light intensities. In addition, the hyperbolic leakiness increase observed under low light intensities was not associated to operating efficiency loss. Overall, in the three experimental Chapters I showed compelling theoretical and empirical evidence proving the hypothesis that C4 plants deal with low light conditions and with different light qualities without losing operating efficiency.

Her Name Was is an examination of the oppression of transgender people in a society that is built on the nominalization of cisgender people, those who gender matchers their sex assigned at birth, and how this oppression lends itself to violence. In the summer of 2015, the body of Shade Schuler, an African American transgender woman, was found in a field outside of Dallas, Texas. Ms. Shade is part of an alarming epidemic of escalating levels of targeted violence against the transgender community. This documentary pulls back the curtain as it captures the feelings and struggles of the transgender community as they attempt to navigate and survive in a cis dominating society.