Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2008. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xiv, 153 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 113-114).

Paperboard combined with polymer and aluminium films are widely used in food packages. Paperboard is used for the bulk of the package material, and provides the stiffness. Paperboard is a highly anisotropic material, which is affected by how the fibers are orientated. Most fibers are aligned in the machine direction (MD), which is the stiffest direction, perpendicular is the cross-machine direction (CD) where fewer fibers are aligned, and the thickness direction (ZD) which is considerably weaker than in the MD and CD directions. Continuum models are used to describe the material properties to aid the design of package manufacturing processes. In continuum models there are no inherent length scale effects, and the material behaviour is the same regardless of the geometry. For paperboard there have been experimentally observed effects of the gauge length and width of tensile tests. To calibrate and develop these models it is important to observe which effect is a material property, if there is an inherent length scale, and which properties are from the boundary conditions of the experimental setup. Creasing is a process where the length scale is considerably smaller than at the standard tensile test, where the material deforms plastically to create creasing lines to easier fold the paperboard. The failure properties from standard tensile tests are not a good predictor of failure in creasing, where the length scale is considerably smaller. To investigate if there is an effect of the length scale, as the length gets smaller, tensile tests have been performed at different gauge lengths. The tensile tests were performed with a width of 15mm and the gauge length was varied in the range 3-100mm in MD and CD. The results from the tensile tests were, the failure strain and failure stress increased as the gauge length of the tests specimens decreased, both in MD and in CD. Initial stiffness decreased as the gauge length decrease (more notable in MD), and there was an increase in hardening at large strains with decreasing gauge length (more notable in CD). An analytical calculation of the reduction in measured stiffness as the gauge length get smaller was performed, where the decrease in stiffness deemed to be strongly related to the out-of-plane shear modulus. By fitting the analytical solution the experimental data the shear modulus was approximated to 60MPa. The shear modulus has been measured for the same paperboard to 70±23MPa. Simulations of the tensile tests at 5mm did fit the experimental data when the material model was calibrated from the tensile test at 100mm, except the increase in hardening at large strains in CD. It was noted that it was important to use the shear modulus that was inversely calculated by the analytical calculations to get the right initial slope of the simulations of the 5mm tensile tests. Creasing simulations were performed of a test setup of the creasing procedure. The male die was lowered 0.3mm to perform the creasing, which in the tests setup do not result in failure in the material. From the simulations the stress at the bottom of the paperboard during creasing exceeded the failure stress from the tensile test performed at 100mm. The stress during creasing was biaxial, it has stresses both in MD and CD, with is different compared to the uniaxial tensile tests at 100mm. The stress from the creasing simulation in CD was at a maximum of 40MPa where the 3mm tensile tests in CD resulted in a failure stress at 39MPa. The maximum stress in the MD creasing simulation was 96MPa, where the 3mm tensile test resulted in a failure stress at 69MPa. The properties from a long span tensile test are not good predictors of failure in creasing, where both stress state and length scale are very different. The failure stress at 3mm tensile tests in CD is close to the maximum stress from creasing simulations, and may be a good indication of failure. The 3mm tensile test in MD resulted in a considerably lower failure stress than the maximum stress in the creasing simulations, which indicates that the 3mm long tensile test is not a good predictor of failure in MD for creasing, where the length scale is even smaller.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 1998. / Title from document title page. "December 1998." Document formatted into pages; contains xv, 142 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 140-142).

There has been no attempt made in this paper to compare the results contained herein to any results secured from previous experimental work. The equations presented are complete in themselves. Development of the equations for the abutments has been independent of the angle of skew. Therefore, they may be used with any solution or this type tor a slab of like material and same length knee, skewed at any angle. As a special case, a right rigid-frame bridge could also be analyzed by this method. / Master of Science

Master of Science / Department of Civil Engineering / Robert J. Peterman / Concrete box culvert floor slabs are known to have detrimental effects on river and stream hydraulics. Consequences include an aquatic environment less friendly to the passage of fish and other organisms. This has prompted environmental regulations restricting construction of traditional, four-sided box culvert structures in rivers and streams populated by protected species. The box culvert standard currently used by the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) is likely to receive increased scrutiny from federal and state environmental regulators in the near future. Additionally, multiple-cell box culverts present a maintenance challenge, since passing driftwood and debris are frequently caught in the barrels and around cell walls. As more structures reach the end of their design lives, new solutions must be developed to facilitate a more suitable replacement. Since construction can cause significant delays to the traveling public, systems and techniques which accelerate the construction process should also be considered. This thesis documents development of a single-span replacement system for box culverts in the state of Kansas. Solutions were found using either a flab slab or the center span of the KDOT three-span, haunched-slab bridge standard. In both cases, the concrete superstructure is connected monolithically with a set of abutment walls, which sit on piling. The system provides an undisturbed, natural channel bottom, satisfying environmental regulations. Important structural, construction, maintenance, and economic criteria considered during the planning stages of bridge design are discussed. While both superstructural systems were found to perform acceptably, the haunched section was chosen for preliminary design. Rationale for selection of this system is explained. Structural modeling, analysis, and design data are presented to demonstrate viability of the system for spans ranging from 32 to 72 feet. The new system is expected to meet KDOT’s needs for structural, environmental, and hydraulic performance, as well as long-term durability. Another option involving accelerated bridge construction (ABC) practices is discussed.

Short span bridges are commonly used throughout the United States to span small waterways and highway overpasses. New technologies in the civil engineering industry have aided in the creation of many unique designs of these short span highway bridges in efforts to decrease construction cost, decrease maintenance costs, increase efficiency, increase constructability, and increase safety. Three innovative systems, the Integral Abutment Bridge, “Bridge-in-a-Backpack”, and the Folded Plate Girder bridge will be analyzed to study how the bridges behave under various types of loading. Detailed finite element models were created for integral abutment bridges of varying geometry. These models are used to study how the live load distribution transversely across the bridge is effected by varying geometric properties and varying modeling techniques. These models will also be used to determine live load distribution factors for the integral abutment bridges and compare them to current American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials specifications. The “Bridge-in-a-Backpack” and the Folded Plate Girder bridges were each constructed with a variety of instruments to measure the bridge movements. Readings from these instruments are used to determine the bridge response under various loading conditions. Bridges were analyzed during their construction process, during static live load testing, and during long term seasonal changes. The results from these studies will aid in the refinement of these innovative designs.

In this thesis the effect of axle load spreading through ballast and the effect of support stiffness has been investigated on short span railway bridges. Two types of bridges, simply supported bridges and bridges with integrated backwalls, have been modeled with 2D beam elements. When analyzing the load spreading effect, two types of load shapes have been considered. The first one is the load shape proposed in Eurocode where the axle load is modeled with three point loads where 50% of the axle load acts on the sleeper located underneath the wheel and 25% on the two adjacent sleepers, respectively. Therefrom the loads are further distributed through the sleepers and the ballast. The second load shape that has been studied is a triangular load shape. These two load shapes have been modeled both with different numbers of point loads and as distributed line loads to see how the dynamic response of the bridges is affected and thereby find what level of accuracy that is required to capture the full effect of the load spreading. For the bridges with integrated backwalls the supports were also modeled as springs with varying stiffness to see how the dynamic response was affected. The response was measured in terms of vertical acceleration and bending moment. From the simulations the conclusion can be drawn that the triangular load shape gives significantly lower bridge responses than the Eurocode load shape. It is further found that modeling the axle loads with point loads can give spurious acceleration peaks, which in the case of bridges with integrated backwalls often are critical. For these bridges it is necessary to enhance the accuracy of the load spread, either by increasing the number of point loads or using a distributed line load. From the spring support simulations, it can be seen that support stiffness has great influence on the dynamic response of bridges with integrated backwalls. For certain values the response is increased, whereas for other values a large reduction is obtained.

The objectives of the thesis were to find the mechanisms that govern compression failures in paperboard and to find the link between manufacturing process and paperboard properties. The thesis also investigates two different test methods and evaluates how suitable they are for paperboard grades. The materials are several commercial board grades and a set of hand-formed dynamic sheets that are made to mimic the construction of commercial paperboard. The method consists of mounting a stereomicroscope on a short-span compression tester and recording the compression failure on video, long-span compression testing and standard properties testing. The observed failure modes of paperboard under compression were classified into four categories depending on the appearance of the failures. Initiation of failure takes place where the structure is weakest and fiber buckling happens after the initiation, which consists of breaking of fiber-fiber bonds or fiber wall delamination. The compression strength is correlated to density and operations and raw materials that increase the density also increases the compression strength. Short-span compression and Long-span compression are not suitable for testing all kinds of papers; the clamps in short-span give bulky specimens an initial geometrical shape that can affect the given value of compression strength. Long-span compression is only suitable for a limited range of papers, one problem with too thin papers are low wavelength buckling.

This thesis examines the development of a superstructure for a slab-on-girder wood-concrete composite highway bridge. Wood-concrete composite bridges have existed since the 1930's. Historically, they have been limited to spans of less than 10 m. Renewed research interest over the past two decades has shown great potential for longer span capabilities. Through composite action and suitable detailing, improvements in strength, stiffness, and durability can be achieved versus conventional wood bridges. The bridge makes use of a slender ultra-high performance fibre-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) deck made partially-composite in longitudinal bending with glued-laminated wood girders. Longitudinal external unbonded post-tensioning is utilized to increase span capabilities. Prefabrication using double-T modules minimizes the need for cast-in-place concrete on-site. Durability is realized through the highly impermeable deck slab that protects the girders from moisture. Results show that the system can span up to 30 m while achieving span-to-depth ratios equivalent or better than competing slab-on-girder bridges.

This thesis examines the development of a superstructure for a slab-on-girder wood-concrete composite highway bridge. Wood-concrete composite bridges have existed since the 1930's. Historically, they have been limited to spans of less than 10 m. Renewed research interest over the past two decades has shown great potential for longer span capabilities. Through composite action and suitable detailing, improvements in strength, stiffness, and durability can be achieved versus conventional wood bridges. The bridge makes use of a slender ultra-high performance fibre-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) deck made partially-composite in longitudinal bending with glued-laminated wood girders. Longitudinal external unbonded post-tensioning is utilized to increase span capabilities. Prefabrication using double-T modules minimizes the need for cast-in-place concrete on-site. Durability is realized through the highly impermeable deck slab that protects the girders from moisture. Results show that the system can span up to 30 m while achieving span-to-depth ratios equivalent or better than competing slab-on-girder bridges.