This thesis aims to investigate the manufacturability of nickel-based superalloys, IN625 and IN718, using the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process. The study provides a better understanding of the process-structure-property of nickel-based superalloys, their fatigue life, and subsequent post-processing. First, the process-structure-property was investigated by selecting a wide range of process parameters to print coupons for IN625 and IN718. Next, a subset of process parameters was defined that would produce high relative density (>99%), low surface roughness (~2 μm), and a low tensile RS. Second, a multi-scale finite element model was constructed to predict the temperature gradients, cooling rates, and their effect on RS. At constant energy density, RS is affected by scan speed, laser power, and hatch spacing, respectively. Third, the optimum set of parameters was used to manufacture and test as-built and shot-peened samples to investigate the fatigue life without costly heat treatment processes. It was found that shot peening resulted in a fatigue life comparable to wrought heat-treated unnotched specimen. Additionally, IN625 had a better fatigue life compared to IN718 due to higher dislocations density as well as the absence of γ´ and γ´´ in IN718 due to the rapid cooling in LPBF. Finally, the effect of post-processing on dimensional accuracy and surface integrity was investigated. A new approach using low-frequency vibration-assisted drilling (VAD) proved feasible by enhancing the as-built hole accuracy while inducing compressive in-depth RS compared to laser peening, which only affects the RS. These favorable findings contributed to the scientific knowledge of LPBF of nickel-based superalloys by determining the process parameters optimum window and reducing the post-processes to obtain a high fatigue life, a better dimensional accuracy, and improved surface integrity. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Compressive residual stresses (CRS) are beneficial for enhancing the fatigue life of metal components. Shot Peening (SP) is an industrial cold working process that is applied to induce a field of CRS and modify the mechanical properties of the metal component. The SP process involves impacting a surface with tiny shots with forces sufficient to create plastic deformation. The process is governed by a number of important parameters such as the shot size, angle of attack, initial velocity, mass flow rate and the distance from the shot nozzle to the surface being peened. The relationship between the optimal peening outcome, particularly the residual stress distribution of the treated surface, and the peening parameters is still unknown and needs to be investigated further. Manufacturers are interested in producing a uniform peening process for complex geometries which optimises the SP parameters. Modelling the process is complex as it involves the interaction of a metallic surface with a large number of shots of very small diameter. Conventionally, such problems are solved using finite element software to predict stresses and strains of a single shot impact then applying superposition. At the moment there are no Finite Element Method (FEM) modelling solutions involving more than tens of shots. The number of shots and elements required for such a modelling process made the approach unfeasible prior to the work described herein. The objective of this work is to develop an appropriate numerical modelling approach that can better simulate the real SP process. The model will be provided by combining Discrete Element Method (DEM) with FEM. The DEM is employed to get a distribution of impact velocities over space and time which are then implemented into a FEM analysis. A discrete element model with randomly distributed steel shots bombarding a steel component at various velocities has been developed as benchmark example. With this model the SP shot - shot interaction, the shot - target interaction, the surface coverage, angle of impingement, shot size, impact velocity and the overall shot flow can be parametrically studied in details and with little computational effort. The novel approach also proposes a new method to dynamically change the coefficient of restitution for repeated impacts during the simulation and predicts the CRS more effectively. The effects of SP on different materials of relevance to gas turbine engine components will be investigated in order to improve the understanding of the interaction between the shots and the targeted material. Initially, an uncoupled analysis was peforned, in order to assess the capabilities of the two modelling systems, DEM and FEM, to delivery an improved solutuion when combining two commercially available codes. This parametric analysis is performed using the state-of-the-art Discrete Element (DE) application EDEM. In the subsequent part of this work, a dynamic Finite Element (FE) application Abaqus will be used to investigate single shot impacts and to obtain the residual stress distribution. This gives us a prescribed residual stress distribution and peening coverage. A Combined DEM/FEM tool (DEST) is proposed that eliminates any manual pre-processing required for linking/coupling, eliminating the use of two different applications and provide an integrated solution for the simulation of the Shot Peening process. In the subsequent chapter, the implementation of essential tools for the enchanced modelling of Shot Peening process functionalities, such as the nozzle, bounding box, coverage and intensity is described. A number of computational improvements are also implemented to reduce the computation time. The existing binary search is enhanced to self-balancing search tree and further improved to allow insertion and deletion of elements. A bounding box feature which removes shots that move out of the domain during the course of the simulation is also implemented. Experiments featuring single shot impacts are performed to gain better understanding the deformation process in the target material subjected to impact conditions to those occurring in the production peening. The single shot impacts are experimentally examined using SEM and EBSD. During final chapter, case studies are performed to compare the results of the simulations with large-scale experimental work. The coverage of peening of single and multiple nozzles with different angle of impingements are assessed. Finally, possible directions for further research concerning the accurate quantification of material responses to SP are identified in the report.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi a avaliação do comportamento à fadiga de materiais compósitos de matriz metálica (CMM) obtidos pela rota da metalurgia do pó, tendo como variáveis a fração volumétrica de reforços e o tipo de tratamento superficial mecânico utilizado. Foram obtidos materiais compósitos com matriz de alumínio AA 1100 reforçados com partículas de carboneto de silício (SiC) nas frações volumétricas de 5, 10 e 15%. Uma quantidade de material de controle, constituído unicamente pelo material da matriz também foi produzida para fins de comparação. Os materiais obtidos foram caracterizados física, mecânica e microestruturalmente. Os resultados mostraram, de maneira geral, uma distribuição homogênea das partículas de reforço e melhoria do limite de resistência dos compósitos com relação ao material de controle. Entretanto, alguns defeitos como porosidades e veios de alumínio puro foram detectados esporadicamente. Em outra etapa, foram realizados ensaios de fadiga do tipo axial nos materiais em modo tensão-tensão, com razão de tensões R = 0,1 e frequência de 15 Hz. Os tipos de tratamentos superficiais utilizados na confecção dos corpos de prova de fadiga foram: usinagem e jateamento. As variáveis de usinagem foram: taxa de avanço e tipo de ferramenta. Os materiais jateados não apresentaram melhorias significativas de vida à fadiga com relação ao material de controle. Os usinados grosseiramente apresentaram a pior vida em fadiga e as marcas de usinagem, nestes casos, funcionaram como fortes concentradores de tensão. Os reforçados com 5% de SiC, diferentemente daqueles reforçados com 10 e 15%, apresentaram vida à fadiga inferior à do material de controle, ou por causa do menor limite de escoamento ou devido à menor fração volumétrica de reforços. Os materiais usinados com metal duro (MD) não apresentaram diferenças de vida à fadiga com relação aos usinados com PCD, provavelmente devido à classe do metal duro utilizado. Os materiais reforçados com 5% de SiC e jateados apresentaram resultados de fadiga com os maiores desvios padrões. Os materiais reforçados com 5% de SiC apresentaram as menores sensibilidades à fadiga com a variação da carga. / The objective of this work was the evaluation of the fatigue behaviour of aluminium metal matrix composites (MMC) obtained by powder metallurgy. The testing variables were the volumetric fraction of reinforcements and the type of mechanical surface treatment used. Initially, the composite materials were obtained from aluminium AA 1100 matrix, reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC) particles in the volumetric fraction of 5, 10 and 15%. An amount of control material (unreinforced) was produced for comparison purposes. The obtained materials were physically, mechanically and microstructurally characterised. The results showed a homogeneous distribution of the reinforcement particles and an improvement of the ultimate tensile strength of the composites with relation to the control material. However, some defects such as porosity and streaks of pure aluminium were detected. In a second stage, the fatigue tests of the composites were accomplished. The types of surface treatments used in the fabrication of the fatigue test specimens were machining and shot peening. For machining the variables were feed rate and tool type. The shot peened materials did not present a significant fatigue life improvement when compared to the control material. The coarse machined materials presented the worst fatigue life and the machining marks worked as strong stress concentrators. The material reinforced with 5% of SiC, differently of those reinforced with 10 and 15% showed inferior fatigue life when compared to the control material, probably because of a lower yielding strength, or lower reinforcement volumetric fraction. The material machined with hard metal (MD) did not present differences of fatigue life with relation to the machined with PCD, probably due to the class of the hard metal used. The material reinforced with 5% of SiC and shot peened, presented fatigue results with the largest standard deviations. The materials reinforced with 5% of SiC presented the smallest fatigue sensibility with the load variation.

Os tratamentos de cementação, têmpera, revenimento e jateamento por granalhas são muito utilizados na produção seriada de peças da indústria automobilística, como engrenagens e eixos. Variações destes processos podem influenciar a vida em fadiga por flexão dos componentes descritos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a influência de variações no tempo de jateamento por granalhas, variações na temperatura de revenimento e de diferentes profundidades de oxidação intergranular, no crescimento de trincas curtas por fadiga na camada cementada do aço DIN 20MnCr5. Para isso foram feitos ensaios de fadiga por flexão em quatro pontos, utilizando corpos de prova de seção retangular e sem entalhe. Para o acompanhamento do crescimento de trincas curtas foi utilizado o método de réplicas de acetato. Foram estudados seis níveis de jateamento, quatro níveis de revenimento e dois níveis de oxidação intergranular. Como resultados principais, foram obtidas curvas de comprimento de trinca por número de ciclos e taxa de crescimento de trinca por tamanho médio da trinca. Amostras jateadas entre trinta minutos e uma hora, revenidas à 160&#176C e com oxidação intergranular por volta de dez mícrons, apresentaram os melhores resultados em relação à vida em fadiga. / Carburizing, quenching, tempering and shot peening treatments are often used in mass production of automotive parts, such as gears and shafts. Changes in these treatments can influence the bending fatigue life of these parts. The purpose of this study was to measure the influence of different shot peening times, different tempering temperature and different internal oxidation depths, on the short fatigue crack growth in case carburized DIN 20MnCr5 steel. Four-point-bend fatigue tests were carried out in rectangular section specimens without notch. The surface short crack growth was monitored by means of acetate replication technique. Six levels of shot peening, four levels of tempering temperatures and two levels of internal oxidation were studied in this work. Crack length versus number of cycles and crack growth rate versus mean crack length were obtained as principal results. Shot peening from 30 minutes to one hour, tempering at 160#176C and a lO~m depth of internal oxidation showed the best results in fatigue life.

Oil Jet Cavitation Peening in Air (OPA) is capable of inducing compressive residual stress in standard aerospace materials. This paper demonstrates the process capabilities of OPA on Al 2024-T3. Specifically, changes in the workpiece residual stress, microhardness, mass loss and surface roughness are investigated as a function of the control parameters for the system. Additionally, the paper identifies a method to monitor the process in situ through the use of high frequency acoustic emission sensors. The results indicate the OPA process is capable of generating residual stresses comparable to those of standard shot peening, up to 60% of the yield strength of the material, at similar depths, around 300 µm. Finally, the acoustic emission signal may be utilized to monitor the process, specifically in predicting the microhardness and mass loss of the system.

No description available.

Les traitements de surface mécaniques sont appliqués dans la plupart des secteurs industriels comme procédé de finition afin de renforcer les propriétés des composants métalliques. Le grenaillage de précontrainte est probablement l’un des plus répandu. Ce procédé introduit des contraintes résiduelles de compression en générant un gradient de déformation plastique dans la profondeur de la pièce traitée. L’objectif de ce travail est de comprendre et prédire l’effet de la géométrie des composants sur la redistribution des contraintes résiduelles post-grenaillage. En effet, même lorsqu’elle est maîtrisée, l’opération de grenaillage peut générer un champ de contraintes résiduelles complexe qui dépend fortement de la géométrie de la pièce. Par suite, parmi les paramètres influents sur le comportement en fatigue des composants grenaillés, le paramètre géométrique peut donc avoir un rôle majeur. Puisque les approches conventionnelles de modélisation ne sont pas transposables aux géométries non planes, et ne sont pas conformes aux contraintes industrielles en termes de temps de calcul, une méthodologie basée sur la Méthode de Reconstruction des Eigenstrains est proposée. L’approche développée est construite à partir de relations analytiques pour des massifs plans traités de façon homogène. La principale contribution est la comparaison entre modélisation et expérimentation. Les données expérimentales sont obtenues à partir d’analyses de la microstructure et par diffraction des rayons X réalisées sur des échantillons d’un superalliage base nickel, pour plusieurs géométries complexes élémentaires (plaques minces, formes convexes et concaves). Par ailleurs cette étude vise à prendre en compte l’effet des contraintes résiduelles équilibrées sur la durée de vie en fatigue. A partir du critère de fatigue multiaxial de Crossland, la méthodologie complète est appliquée à des démonstrateurs industriels à géométrie complexe. / Most manufacturing industries perform mechanical surface treatments at the end of the manufacturing chain to reinforce relevant working parts. Shot peening is probably the most common of those processes. This treatment induces compressive residual stresses by generating in-depth plastic strains. The objective of this work is to understand and predict the effect of the geometry on the redistribution of residual stresses into shot peened mechanical parts. Indeed, even when properly controlled, shot peening treatment may induce a complex residual stress field depending on the geometry of the treated part. Hence, among the variables which affect the fatigue behaviour of shot peened components, the geometry could play a major role. Because the traditional approaches for the modelling of residual stresses are not convenient for complex non-flat geometries and not consistent with industrial constraints in terms of computing time, a methodology based on the Eigenstrains Reconstruction Method is proposed. The developed approach is built with analytical relationships for massive and plane geometries homogeneously treated. The main contribution lies in the capacity to provide a comparison between modelling and experiment. Experimental data are obtained by microstructural observation and by X-ray diffraction analyses, which are carried out on Ni-based superalloy samples with elementary complex geometries (thin sheets, convex and concave shapes). In addition, this study aims to take into account the effect of the rebalanced residual stresses for fatigue life prediction. Thus, using a Crossland criterion for high cycle fatigue regime, the complete methodology is applied on industrial demonstrator samples with complex geometry.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:42:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:07:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 06122.pdf: 7934596 bytes, checksum: 1f20a90fa19d579c7465dc1ddb614d44 (MD5) / Tese (Doutoramento) / IPEN/T / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

Os tratamentos de cementação, têmpera, revenimento e jateamento por granalhas são muito utilizados na produção seriada de peças da indústria automobilística, como engrenagens e eixos. Variações destes processos podem influenciar a vida em fadiga por flexão dos componentes descritos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a influência de variações no tempo de jateamento por granalhas, variações na temperatura de revenimento e de diferentes profundidades de oxidação intergranular, no crescimento de trincas curtas por fadiga na camada cementada do aço DIN 20MnCr5. Para isso foram feitos ensaios de fadiga por flexão em quatro pontos, utilizando corpos de prova de seção retangular e sem entalhe. Para o acompanhamento do crescimento de trincas curtas foi utilizado o método de réplicas de acetato. Foram estudados seis níveis de jateamento, quatro níveis de revenimento e dois níveis de oxidação intergranular. Como resultados principais, foram obtidas curvas de comprimento de trinca por número de ciclos e taxa de crescimento de trinca por tamanho médio da trinca. Amostras jateadas entre trinta minutos e uma hora, revenidas à 160&#176C e com oxidação intergranular por volta de dez mícrons, apresentaram os melhores resultados em relação à vida em fadiga. / Carburizing, quenching, tempering and shot peening treatments are often used in mass production of automotive parts, such as gears and shafts. Changes in these treatments can influence the bending fatigue life of these parts. The purpose of this study was to measure the influence of different shot peening times, different tempering temperature and different internal oxidation depths, on the short fatigue crack growth in case carburized DIN 20MnCr5 steel. Four-point-bend fatigue tests were carried out in rectangular section specimens without notch. The surface short crack growth was monitored by means of acetate replication technique. Six levels of shot peening, four levels of tempering temperatures and two levels of internal oxidation were studied in this work. Crack length versus number of cycles and crack growth rate versus mean crack length were obtained as principal results. Shot peening from 30 minutes to one hour, tempering at 160#176C and a lO~m depth of internal oxidation showed the best results in fatigue life.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:42:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:07:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 06122.pdf: 7934596 bytes, checksum: 1f20a90fa19d579c7465dc1ddb614d44 (MD5) / Tese (Doutoramento) / IPEN/T / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP