The development of a site-specific seismic hazard curve for a soil site requires the incorporation of site effects into the hazard calculation through the use of a site-specific amplification function. This study investigates the effect on the resulting soil hazard curves of different approaches to compute the site-specific amplification function. Amplification functions and their standard deviations can be developed using equivalent linear site response analyses. This study investigates the amplification function predictions of one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) site response analyses. For 1D analysis, one set of analyses are performed using time series (TS) input motions while a second set is performed using random vibration theory (RVT). One-dimensional site response analyses are performed for a shallow and a deep soil site and the results are compared for seismic hazard predictions. The influence of spatial variability introduced through randomization of site shear wave velocity (V[subscript S]) is also investigated. Shear wave velocity profile randomization does not significantly change the predicted amplification functions, except for the RVT analysis near the site period. At these periods, (V[subscript S]) randomization reduces the amplification function predicted by RVT making it more similar to the TS analysis prediction. The surface hazard at a site is dependent on the median amplification factor and its associated standard deviation. Spatial variability and uncertainties in soil properties across a site are often taken into account by modeling multiple 1D profiles in 1D site response analyses. However, this approach assumes that analyzing multiple 1D profiles captures accurately the effects of the true multi-dimensional spatial variability of the soil properties. This study investigates the results of two-dimensional (2D) site response analyses that incorporate spatial variability in the (V[subscript S]) profile through Monte Carlo simulation. Two-dimensional site response analyses are performed for 2D random fields generated with various statistical parameters (i.e. vertical and horizontal correlation distances) to investigate the effect of different levels of spatial variability on surface response across a region of interest (ROI). Two-dimensional site response analyses are performed for a shallow site. Results indicate that horizontal correlation distance has more influence on the analyses results than the vertical correlation distance. As the horizontal correlation distance increases, the median surface response spectrum across the ROI decreases. This reduction in median surface response is more pronounced around the site period. The influence of the vertical correlation distance is more pronounced when the horizontal correlation distance is large. As the vertical correlation distance increases, the median surface response spectrum across the ROI increases, which is more pronounced around the period of the motion. The predictions of 1D and 2D site response analyses modeling the (V[subscript S]) variability are compared. 1D analyses are performed on separately generated 1D (V[subscript S]) profiles (infinite horizontal correlation) and on the (V[subscript S]) profiles across the ROI of each 2D (V[subscript S]) field realization generated for 2D analysis (finite horizontal correlation). The results indicate that both sets of 1D analyses predict lower median response than 2D analyses. The 1D analyses with finite horizontal correlation display comparable levels of variability in the site response, however 1D analyses with infinite horizontal correlation display higher variability. / text

Topography effects, the modification of seismic motion by topographic features, have been long recognized to play a key role in elevating seismic risk. Site response, the modification of ground motion by near surface soft soils, has been also shown to strongly affect the amplitude, frequency and duration of seismic motion. Both topography effects and 1-D site response have been extensively studied through field observations, small-scale and field experiments, analytical models and numerical simulations, but each one has been studied independently of the other: studies on topography effects are based on the assumption of a homogeneous elastic halfspace, while 1-D site response studies are almost exclusively formulated for flat earth surface conditions. This thesis investigates the interaction between topographic and soil amplification, focusing on strong ground motions that frequently trigger nonlinear soil response. Recently, a series of centrifuge experiments tested the seismic response of single slopes of various inclination angles at the NEES@UCDavis facility, to investigate the effects of nonlinear soil response on topographic amplification. As part of this collaborative effort, we extended the search space of these experiments using finite element simulations. We first used simulations to determine whether the centrifuge experimental results were representative of free-field conditions. We specifically investigated whether wave reflections caused by the laminar box interfered with mode conversion and wave scattering that govern topographic amplification; and whether this interference was significant enough to qualitatively alter the observed amplification compared to free-field conditions. We found that the laminar box boundaries caused spurious reflections that affected the response near the boundaries; however its effect to the crest-to-free field spectral ratio was found to be insignificant. Most importantly though, we found that the baseplate was instrumental in trapping and amplifying waves scattered and diffracted by the slope, and that in absence of those reflections, topographic amplification would have been negligible. We then used box- and baseplate-free numerical models to study the coupling between topography effects and soil amplification in free-field conditions. Our results showed that the complex wavefield that characterizes the response of topographic features with non-homogeneous soil cannot be predicted by the superposition of topography effects and site response, as is the widespread assumption of engineering and seismological models. We also found that the coupling of soil and topographic amplification occurs both for weak and strong motions, and for pressure-dependent media (Nevada sand), nonlinear soil response further aggravates topographic amplification; we attributed this phenomenon to the reduction of apparent velocity that the low velocity layers suffer during strong ground motion, which intensifies the impedance contrast and accentuates the energy trapping and reverberations in the low strength surficial layers. We finally highlighted the catalytic effects that soil stratigraphy can have in topographic amplification through a case study from the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. Results presented in this thesis imply that topography effects vary significantly with soil stratigraphy, and the two phenomena should be accounted for as a coupled process in seismic code provisions and seismological ground motion predictive models.

This study examines the sensitivity of calculated site response in connection with alternative assumptions regarding input motions and procedures prescribed in the IBC 2000 building code, particularly the use of average shear wave velocity in the upper 30 meters as an index for engineering design response spectra. Site specific subsurface models are developed for four sites in and near Columbia, South Carolina using shear wave velocity measurements from cone penetrometer tests. The four sites are underlain by thin coastal plain sedimentary deposits, overlying high velocity Paleozoic crystalline rock. An equivalent-linear algorithm is used to estimate site response for vertically incident shear waves in a horizontally layered Earth model. Non-linear mechanical behavior of the soils is analyzed using previously published strain-dependent shear modulus and damping degradation models. Two models for material beneath the investigated near-surface deposits are used: B-C outcrop conditions and hard rock outcrop conditions. The rock outcrop model is considered a geologically realistic model where a velocity gradient, representing a transition zone of partially weathered rock and fractured rock, overlies a rock half-space. Synthetic earthquake input motions are generated using the deaggregations from the 2002 National Seismic Hazard Maps, representing the characteristic Charleston source. The U. S. Geological Survey (2002) uniform hazard spectra are used to develop 2% in 50 year probability of exceedance input ground motions for both B-C boundary and hard rock outcrop conditions. An initial analysis was made for all sites using an 8 meter thick velocity gradient for the rock input model. Sensitivity of the models to uncertainty of the weathered zone thickness was assessed by randomizing the thickness of the velocity gradient. The effect of the velocity gradient representing the weathered rock zone increases site response at high frequencies. Both models (B-C outcrop conditions and rock outcrop conditions) are compared with the International Building Code (IBC 2000) maximum credible earthquake spectra. The results for both models exceed the IBC 2000 spectra at some frequencies, between 3 and 10 Hz at all four sites. However, site 2, which classifies as a C site and is therefore assumed to be the most competent of the four sites according to IBC 2000 design procedures, has the highest calculated spectral acceleration of the four sites analyzed. Site 2 has the highest response because a low velocity zone exists at the bottom of the geotechnical profile in immediate contact with the higher velocity rock material, producing a very large impedance contrast. An important shortcoming of the IBC 2000 building code results from the fact that it does not account for cases in which there is a strong rock-soil velocity contrast at depth less than 30 meters. It is suggested that other site-specific parameters, specifically, depth to bedrock and near-surface impedance ratio, should be included in the IBC design procedures. / Master of Science

This thesis focuses on two different topics in seismology: imaging the global structures of the mantle transition zone discontinuities and studying the site response effects in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. Global structures of the mantle transition zone discontinuities provide important constraints on thermal structures and dynamic processes in the mid mantle. In this thesis, global topographic structures of the 410- and 660-km discontinuities are obtained from finite-frequency tomography of SS precursors. The finite-frequency sensitivities of SS waves and precursors are calculated based on a single-scattering (Born) approximation and can be used for data selection. The new global models show a number of smaller-scale features that were absent in back-projection models. Good correlation between the mantle transition zone thickness and wave speed variations suggests dominantly thermal origins for the lateral variations in the transition zone. The high-resolution global models of the 410- and 660-km discontinuities in this thesis show strong positive correlation beneath western North America and eastern Asia subduction zones with both discontinuities occurring at greater depths. Wavespeed and anisotropy models support vertical variations in thermal structure in the mid mantle, suggesting return flows from the lower mantle occur predominantly in the vicinity of stagnant slabs and the region overlying the stagnant slabs. In oceanic regions, the two discontinuities show a weak anti-correlation, indicating the existence of a secondary global far-field return flow. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain is covered by extensive Cretaceous and Cenozoic marine sediments. In this thesis, the site response effects of sediments in the Coastal Plain region relative to the reference condition outside that region are investigated using Lg and coda spectral ratios. The high-frequency attenuation factors (kappa) in the Coastal Plain are strongly correlated with the sediment thickness. At frequencies between 0.1-2.86 Hz, the Lg spectral ratio amplitudes are modeled as functions of frequency and thickness of the sediments in the Coastal Plain. Analysis of the residuals from the stochastic ground motion prediction method suggests that incorporating the site response effects as functions of sediment thickness may improve ground motion prediction models for the Coastal Plain region. / Doctor of Philosophy / The mantle transition zone is the region in the Earth’s interior between depths of ∼410 km and ∼660 km. The structure of the mantle transition zone plays an important role in understanding temperature variations and mass exchanges in the interior of the Earth. This dissertation aims at resolving depth variations of the top and bottom boundaries of the mantle transition zone at a global scale using underside reflected seismic waves. The advanced method used here resolved stronger small-scale depth variations of the boundaries than a conventional method using the same dataset. The two mantle transition zone boundaries both occur at depths greater than the global average beneath eastern Asia and western North America where cold oceanic lithosphere subducted under the continents. This positively correlated behaviors of the two boundaries agree with a scenario where cold subducted slabs have been horizontally deflected and stagnant above the bottom boundary of the mantle transition zone while hot materials beneath the mantle transition zone flow upwards due to the stagnant slabs penetrating the bottom boundary of the mantle transition zone. This dissertation also provides an examination of the differences between response of earthquake ground shaking in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain and that outside the Coastal Plain using seismic-wave spectral ratios. Ground shaking in the Coastal Plain is found to be amplified at low frequencies and de-amplified at high frequencies relative to that outside the Coastal Plain due to the extensive marine sediments in the Coastal Plain region. The amplification and attenuation factors can be estimated from spectral ratios and are found to be strongly correlated with the sediment thickness in the Coastal Plain. The spectral ratio functions derived in this dissertation may be adopted by studies on analyzing the seismic hazard in the Central and Eastern United States.

The understanding of the impact of site effects on ground motions is crucial for improving the assessment of seismic hazards. Site response analyses (SRA) can numerically accommodate the mechanics behind the wave propagation phenomena near the surface as well as the variability associated with the input motion and soil properties. As a result, SRA constitute a key component of the assessment of site-specific seismic hazards within the probabilistic seismic hazard analysis framework. This work focuses on limitations in SRA, namely, the definition of the elastic half-space (EHS) boundary condition, the selection of input ground motions so that they are compatible with the assumed EHS properties, and the proper consideration of near-surface attenuation effects. Input motions are commonly selected based on similarities between the shear wave velocity (Vs) at the recording station and the materials below the reference depth at the study site (among other aspects such as the intensity of the expected ground motion, distance to rupture, type of source, etc.). This traditional approach disregards the influence of the attenuation in the shallow crust and the degree to which it can alter the estimates of site response. A Vs-κ correction framework for input motions is proposed to render them compatible with the properties of the assumed EHS at the site. An ideal EHS must satisfy the conditions of linearity and homogeneity. It is usually defined at a horizon where no strong impedance contrast will be found below that depth (typically the top of bedrock). However, engineers face challenges when dealing with sites where this strong impedance contrast takes place far beyond the depth of typical Vs measurements. Case studies are presented to illustrate potential issues associated with the selection of the EHS boundary in SRA. Additionally, the relationship between damping values as considered in geotechnical laboratory-based models, and as implied by seismological attenuation parameters measured using ground motions recorded in the field is investigated to propose alternative damping models that can match more closely the attenuation of seismic waves in the field. / Ph. D.

Local site conditions can greatly increase the intensity and character of earthquake shaking and, thus, the extent and type of structural damage. The removal and replacement of in-situ soils with compacted gravel-sized volcanic rock has been prevalent in the Icelandic foundation subgrade construction practice for decades, despite the unknown seismic site response characteristics of the fill (e.g., the predominant frequency and relative site amplification). To fill this knowledge gap, over 500 hours of microtremor measurements were made at six study sites located throughout the Reykjavík, Iceland, capital region. Measurements recorded at various construction stages (e.g., the in-situ or pre-excavation, post-excavation, intermediate grades, and final grade) reveal the change in site response characteristics before and after gravel fill placement. The data was analyzed using the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) technique over a bandwidth of 0.3 to 25 Hz. Generally, the pre-excavation condition had a predominant site frequency between 3.5 and 7 Hz with relative amplification between 3.8 and 3.9 times. The placement of gravel fill atop dense to very dense silty sand underlain by bedrock shifts the predominant frequency between 10 and 16 Hz with a relative peak amplification between 2.5 and 5.3 times, generally increasing with fill thickness. Fill underlain by undulating lava rock also results in a higher a predominant frequency between 9 and 10.5 Hz, but little change in relative site amplification occurred at these frequencies (between 0.95 and 1.2 times). This dissimilarity is due to the unique lava rock HVSR signatures which have large amplification values (between 2.6 to 3.9 times) throughout the high-band frequency range. Additional investigations of sites underlain by lava rock are required to draw stronger empirical trends. The data set produced by this study can serve as a useful tool for the local geotechnical and seismological communities to mitigate seismic risk for the capital region. / Master of Science / Problematic soil conditions can greatly increase the intensity and character of earthquake shaking and, thus, the extent and type of building damage. The removal of native soils and replacement with compacted gravel-sized fill has been the predominant building foundation subgrade construction method in Iceland for decades. The practice of removal and replacement is one of the oldest and conceptually simplest approaches of site improvement to reduce settlement and increase soil strength. However, the understanding of how compacted gravel fill responds to earthquake shaking was nonexistent in literature. To fill this knowledge gap, the response characteristics of compacted gravel fill were derived using the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) and standard spectral ratio (SSR) analysis techniques from a data set of over 500 hours of experimental in-field measurements. Measurements were recorded at various construction stages (e.g., pre-excavation or native soil, post-excavation, intermediate fill grades, and the final fill grade) to reveal the change in site response characteristics before and after gravel fill placement. The findings presented in this thesis can serve as useful information for the local geotechnical and seismological communities to mitigate seismic risk (e.g., the probability of building damage and/or loss of lives) of structures with compacted gravel fill subgrades in the Reykjavík, Iceland capital region.

On December 22nd, 2003, the Mw=6.5 San Simeon earthquake occurred 12 kilometers east of San Simeon, California, causing damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructure throughout the central coast. The community of Oceano, 80 kilometers southeast of the epicenter, experienced damage to foundations, roads, and utilities due to liquefaction and lateral spreading. The unique geologic environment in Oceano caused a local amplification of ground motions, liquefaction, and lateral spreading. This study entailed developing ten liquefaction case histories from Oceano during the 2003 San Simeon earthquake. Four of the ten case histories are liquefaction cases and six are non-liquefaction cases, with Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR) ranging from 0.17 to 0.43 and average corrected cone tip resistance (qc1) ranging from 2.67 to 23.53 kN/m^2. Subsurface data used to represent the geologic conditions in each case history included CPT soundings provided by the United States Geological Survey (Holzer et al., 2004). Ground motion data used to represent the earthquake conditions in each case history included the nearest relatively free field ground motion recordings from the SLO Rec Center Seismic Monitoring Station provided by the PEER strong motion center (PEER Ground Motions Database, 2003). CPT soundings were grouped together to develop representative case histories, allowing for averaging of parameters. The stratum with the single highest potential for liquefaction was selected and used as the ‘critical layer’ in each case history. To accurately represent the ground motion felt by each critical layer, a site response model was used to calculate average shear stress, which was used to calculate Cyclic Stress Ratio. The site response model was built using DEEPSOIL V6.1 with measured seismic shear wave velocities. Velocities were measured using passive geophysical methods in conjunction with Spatial Autocorrelation (SPAC) methods to process the data into shear wave velocity profiles. Measured velocities ranged from approximately 117 to 469 meters per second at depths ranging from 0 to 50 meters below the ground and were normally dispersive.

While site effects are accounted for in most modern U.S. seismic design codes for building structures, there exist no standardized procedures for the computationally efficient integration of nonlinear ground response analyses in broadband ground motion simulations. In turn, the lack of a unified methodology affects the prediction accuracy of site-specific ground motion intensity measures, the evaluation of site amplification factors when broadband simulations are used for the development of hybrid attenuation relations and the estimation of inelastic structural performance when strong motion records are used as input in aseismic structural design procedures. In this study, a set of criteria is established, which quantifies how strong nonlinear effects are anticipated to manifest at a site by investigating the empirical relation between nonlinear soil response, soil properties, and ground motion characteristics. More specifically, the modeling variability and parametric uncertainty of nonlinear soil response predictions are studied, along with the uncertainty propagation of site response analyses to the estimation of inelastic structural performance. Due to the scarcity of design level ground motion recording, the geotechnical information at 24 downhole arrays is used and the profiles are subjected to broadband ground motion synthetics. For the modeling variability study, the site response models are validated against available downhole array observations. The site and ground motion parameters that govern the intensity of nonlinear effects are next identified, and an empirical relationship is established, which may be used to estimate to a first approximation the error introduced in ground motion predictions if nonlinear effects are not accounted for. The soil parameter uncertainty in site response predictions is next evaluated as a function of the same measures of soil properties and ground motion characteristics. It is shown that the effects of nonlinear soil property uncertainties on the ground-motion variability strongly depend on the seismic motion intensity, and this dependency is more pronounced for soft soil profiles. By contrast, the effects of velocity profile uncertainties are less intensity dependent and more sensitive to the velocity impedance in the near surface that governs the maximum site amplification. Finally, a series of bilinear single degree of freedom oscillators are subjected to the synthetic ground motions computed using the alternative soil models, and evaluate the consequent variability in structural response. Results show high bias and uncertainty of the inelastic structural displacement ratio predicted using the linear site response model for periods close to the fundamental period of the soil profile. The amount of bias and the period range where the structural performance uncertainty manifests are shown to be a function of both input motion and site parameters.

The central and eastern United States is subject to seismic hazards from both natural and induced earthquakes, as evidenced by the 1811-1812 New Madrid earthquake sequence, consisting of at least three magnitude 7 and greater earthquakes, and by four magnitude 5 and greater induced earthquakes in Oklahoma since 2011. To mitigate seismic hazards, both earthquake sources and their effects need to be characterized. Ground motion site response can cause additional damage to susceptible infrastructure and buildings. Recent studies indicate that Vs30, one of the primary site-response predictors used in current engineering practice, is not reliable. To investigate site response in the New Madrid Seismic Zone, ratios of surface-to-bedrock amplitude spectra, TFT, from S-wave recordings at the two deep vertical seismic arrays in the sediment-filled upper Mississippi Embayment (i.e., VSAP and CUSSO) were calculated. The mean TFT curves were compared with theoretical transfer functions; the results were comparable, indicating that TFT estimates of the empirical, linear SH-wave site responses at these sites. The suitability of surface S-wave horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios, H/V, for estimating the empirical site transfer function was also evaluated. The results indicate that mean S-wave H/V curves are similar to TFT at low frequencies (less than the fifth natural frequencies) at both CUSSO and VSAP. SH-wave fundamental frequency, f0, and fundamental-mode amplification, A0, were evaluated as alternatives to the Vs30 proxy to estimate primary linear site-response characteristics at VSAP, CUSSO, and nine other seismic stations in the CEUS. In addition, calculated f0 and A0 were compared with the first peaks of S-wave H/V spectral ratios. The f0 and A0 were found to approximate the 1-D linear, viscoelastic, fundamental-mode responses at most stations. Also, S-wave H/V from weak-motion earthquakes can be used to measure f0. However, S-wave H/V does not reliably estimate A0 in the project area. S-wave H/V observations reveal site response within the frequency band of engineering interest from deeper, unmodeled geological structures. Because damaging or felt earthquakes induced by hydraulic fracturing and wastewater disposal have occurred in the CEUS, characterizing background seismicity prior to new large-scale subsurface fluid injection is important to identify cases of and the potential for induced seismicity. The Rogersville Shale in the Rome Trough of eastern Kentucky is being tested for unconventional oil and gas potential; production of this shale requires hydraulic fracturing, which has been linked to induced seismicity elsewhere in the CEUS. To characterize natural seismicity and to monitor induced seismicity during testing, a temporary seismic network was deployed in the Rome Trough near the locations of new, Rogersville Shale oil and gas test wells. Using the real-time recordings of this network and those of other regional seismic stations, three years of local seismicity were cataloged. Only three earthquakes occurred in the Rome Trough of eastern Kentucky, none of which was associated with the deep Rogersville Shale test wells that were stimulated during the time the network was in operation.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第20684号 / 工博第4381号 / 新制||工||1681(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科都市社会工学専攻 / (主査)教授 澤田 純男, 教授 清野 純史, 准教授 後藤 浩之 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM