Mojawapo ya matokeo ya utandawazi ni kuwapo kwa simu za kiganjani na matumizi yake. Siku hizi nchini Tanzania mawasiliano ya simu yamekuwako kwa wingi kuliko ilivyokuwa tangu wakati wa uhuru hadi katikati ya miaka ya tisini. Lugha ya Kiswahili inayotumika katika simu hizi ni ya kiutandawazi na pengine si rahisi kuiona nje ya wigo huu wa kiutandawazi ambao pia unajumuisha mawasiliano kwa barua pepe, na maongezi katika tovuti. Suala kubwa tunalolijadili katika makala hii ni changamoto zinazoletwa na lugha hii katika Isimujamii, hasa kuchanganya msimbo (lugha) na kubadili misimbo (lugha) (code mixing and code switching). Kwahiyo mwelekeo wa makala hii ni utafiti wa matumizi ya lugha hii tandawazi kwa kuangalia simu za viganjani na athari yake katika nadharia za isimujamii. Madhumuni yetu ni kuangalia matumizi ya lugha ya Kiswahili katika simu za viganjani.

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published_or_final_version / Education / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

My thesis revives the term raciology to describe collectively the literature which emanated out of philological ethnology, that is, out of the studies of man inspired by the rapid advances in linguistic science in the early nineteeenth century. Raciological Thought in Victorian Culture is divided into two parts: it examines the development and dissemination of nineteenth-century raciological knowledge in the works of celebrated philologists and anthropologists; and then investigates typical features of raciological discourse in Victorian and Victorian Canadian culture. It views this regional British literature as a field for the political and educational deployment of British raciological conceptions, and comments on some of the implications of the circulation of raciological doctrine. My argument begins with discussion of the often overlooked celebrity and authority of philologists in Victorian culture, tracing the derivation from philology of raciological typologies which established the raciological associations of terms like "Britons," "Anglo-Saxons," and "Teutons" during the early and middle-Victorian periods. An important aspect of the thesis is a re-evaluation of the influence of Friedrich Max Muller, the most influential comparative philologist and mythologist in the Victorian world. I argue that his use of etymological study for archaeological data greatly contributed to the rapid dissemination of raciological thought among the educated and educating classes. The first part of the thesis concludes with discussion of issues which animated raciological discourse. The second part follows the dissemination of Victorian raciological thought to Canada, and illustrates its effects in an imperial context. It demonstrates the use of raciology in establishing Canada's legitimacy as a British nation, and documents the place of raciology in establishing the authenticity of Canadian continuity with a British culture running into deep antiquity. After discussing neglected raciological aspects of several important Victorian Canadian source works, it goes on to outline the importance of raciological mythology to the preservation of the Dominion from American annexation and Fenian incursion. My epilogue briefly documents the decline of raciological thought in Britain after the 1890s. By investigating numerous neglected Victorian sources, Raciological Thought in Victorian Culture establishes raciology as an important element in Victorian political-and, in particular, nationalist-thinking.

The present study focused on changes over time in university-level Japanese students' sociocultural perceptions of social status during their year abroad in Canada, and the impact of such altered perceptions on their perceptions at subsequent time points. The sociocultural perception to be examined was perceived "social status" which Brown and Levinson (1987) discussed as a contributory factor in the perception of social asymmetry, power and authority. The study attempted to examine (1) whether (and to what extent) Japanese students, before they came to study in Canada, had recognized English native speakers' understanding of social status and had learned how to offer advice appropriately in English to individuals of various social statuses, (2) what proportion of differential pragmatic development among Japanese students in Canada was accounted for by their English proficiency and amount of exposure to English, and (3) whether (and to what extent) living and studying in Canada facilitated Japanese students' pragmatic development, which was assessed by the degree of approximation to native speech act behavior in various advice-giving situations repeated during the course of an academic year. To this end, the study compared the development of Japanese exchange students' pragmatic competence during their year abroad in Canada with peers in Japan who did not undertake a year abroad.

L’étude des attitudes linguistiques, entreprise par la sociolinguistique et la psychologie sociale, a permis de confirmer que toutes les variétés linguistiques ne reçoivent pas le même traitement. La langue standard, étant en règle générale la langue du groupe de prestige, bénéficie d’une reconnaissance sociale en comparaison avec les variétés non-standards ou minoritaires, qui, au contraire, suscitent généralement des attitudes plus négatives. Dans ce mémoire, nous analysons les attitudes linguistiques des mexicains à l’égard du slang mexicain. La méthodologie du projet comporte deux parties principales. Dans un premier temps, des conversations spontanées et naturelles entre locuteurs de slang sont enregistrées. Des fragments de ces enregistrements sont ensuite écoutés par un groupe de sujets qui, simultanément, remplit un questionnaire évaluant leurs attitudes linguistiques dirigées envers l’usage du slang ainsi qu’envers les individus qui le parle. L’analyse statistique des résultats permet de faire quelques constats : Il y a une différence très significative entre la façon dont les dimensions de solidarité et de prestige sont jugées, les pointages donnés aux aspects tels que l’intelligence et le succès des locuteurs de slang s’avérant beaucoup plus bas que ceux accordés aux aspects reliés à leur personnalité, comme la bonté et la générosité. Aussi, les variables de l’âge et du sexe ont une influence sur les attitudes linguistiques : les femmes ainsi que la génération plus âgée s’avèrent plus sévères dans leur évaluation du slang. Ce mémoire se divise en cinq chapitres. Les deux premiers explorent les concepts théoriques sur lesquels se basent le projet, soit les attitudes linguistiques et le slang comme phénomène linguistique et social. Les trois chapitres suivants se consacrent au projet en soit : la méthodologie, l’analyse des résultats et l’interprétation de ceux-ci. / The study of language attitudes via sociolinguistics and social psychology has confirmed the notion that all varieties of language are treated differently. As a general rule, the standard language is the language of the prestigious group and is held at a high social esteem whereas non-standard or minority language varieties are, in general, judged negatively. This thesis analyzes the language attitudes of Mexicans towards Mexican slang. The project methodology consists in two main phases. Firstly, spontaneous and natural conversations are recorded. Following this, a group of individuals listen to fragments of these conversations while simultaneously filling out a questionnaire that evaluate their language attitudes towards the use of slang as well as towards the slang speakers. The statistical analysis of the results lead to the observation of several patterns: There is a very significant difference in the way solidarity aspects and prestige aspects are judged. The points given to aspects such as intelligence and success for speakers of slang are significantly lower than the points given to personality aspects such as generosity and kindness. Age and gender also have influence on language attitudes: women and the elderly are more severe in their judgment and evaluation of slang. This thesis is divided into five chapters. The first two explore the theoretical concepts upon which the work is based, including language attitudes and slang as a linguistic and social phenomenon. The following three chapters are dedicated to the project itself: the methodology, the analysis of the results and their interpretation.

The research reported in this thesis is basically applied in purpose. However the theoretical siqnificance of interactional sociolinquistics is explored by showinq that it is based on a philosophy of science which differs fundamentally from the versions of positivism which have informed linquistics over the years. The research methods consistent with this methodology are also outlined. The applied siqnificance of the sub-field is demonstrated more qenerally at first by examininq its contribution to the understandinq of the relationship between lanquaqe and context. Thereafter the contribution to the understandinq of this relationship is explored in more specific terms by examininq the role of contextual information in the form of culturally-specific interactional styles in the accomplishinq of prejudice and neqative cultural stereotypes in intercultural communication in South Africa. The siqnificance of this explanation is explored further by showinq how such an interactional account fits into a more comprehensive explanation of the causes of discrimination in South Africa, one that includes, also. structural explanations, and explanations in terms of the psycholoqy of individuals. This prepares the way for a consideration of the possible contribution of interactional sociolinquistics to solutions to the problem of discrimination both in South Africa and elsewhere. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1987.

This study provides an overview of the socio-cultural functions and motivations of English-IsiZulu code-switching among speakers at Inanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashu (INK) in Durban. Following Myres-Scotton (1993a), code-switching is defined as the mixing of different codes by speakers in the same conversation and this switch may take place at any level of language differentiation (languages, dialects, registers). Code-switching has become a universal phenomenon among bilingual speakers in most communities in South Africa. Not until recently code-switching/mixing was seen as evidence of “internal mental confusion, the inability to separate two languages sufficiently to warrant the description of true bilingualism” (Lipski, 1982:191). However, in this study, it is argued that code-switching is not only a manifestation of mental confusion but a versatile process involving an enormous amount of expertise in both languages involved and a socially and culturally motivated phenomenon. It is also argued that spoken word corpora is an important aspect in maintaining language vitality through the study of code-switching and other related linguistic phenomenon. This study therefore seeks to explore the socio-cultural functions of code-switching through an analysis of transcriptions derived from naturally occurring voice recorded instances of IsiZulu-English code-switching. It also seeks to explain why IsiZulu speakers code-switch a lot by looking at the history of the IsiZulu language contact with English, the socio-cultural factors as well as the linguistic factors that contribute to the predominance of code-switching among IsiZulu-English bilinguals. Further, it seeks to demonstrate the significance of spoken word corpora in the study and intellectualization of indigenous languages in South Africa. The research approach in this study is situated in the phenomenological paradigm. Both the qualitative and quantitative methodology have been employed. Data for this particular study was gathered through voice recordings of naturally occurring conversations, semi-structured interviews and participant observation. Voice recorded conversations were transcribed and analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively under three broad categories; the socio-cultural functions of code-switching, the socio-cultural motivational factors of code-switching and finally the frequency of codeswitches, code-mixes, adopted items and loan shifts based on a corpus designed for this particular study. The Myers-Scotton (1993b; 1998) Markedness Model has been employed as the main backbone theory in the analysis of the socio-cultural functions and motivations of code-switching. The Markedness Model is considered to be a useful tool in which to analyze code-switching because it accounts for the speaker’s socio-psychological motivations when code-switching (Myers- Scotton 1993b:75). Heller’s (1992, 1995) Ideological-political model has also been used as a supplementary model in this study. In order to understand the role and significance of code-switching, it is essential to understand not only its distribution in the Community, but, more importantly, how that distribution is tied to the way groups control both the distribution of access to valued resources and the way in which that value is assigned (Heller 1992:139-140) . / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

In this thesis. I have moved away from the general question of 'How do women and men behave linguistically?, (Sing and Bergvall. 1996:19) and have turned to investigate in particular how the speech act of apologies contributes to the production of people as 'women and men' (Sing and Bergvall, 1996:19). In other words, the investigation focuses on the effect of politeness strategies on the construction of gender identities. Using poststrucluralist feminist theory as developed primarily by Weedon (1987), this thesis investigates the politeness strategies employed by some Zulu students at the University of Natal, Durban, in their English-medium interactions with African international students. The speech act of apologies is the area of language investigated, with data being collected primarily by means of role-plays and focus groups. The focus of the analysis is limited to the performance of apologies towards non-Zulus by 12 Zulu male and female students. To this end, the various strategies employed by the respondents were analysed according to the framework developed by Holmes (1989, 1995). In addition, information gathered in the focus groups revealed to what extent politeness strategies are still being transferred from Zulu to English. The strategies employed by these men and women are considered as revealing some of the ways by which politeness contributes to the construction of gender identities, in the University context. On the basis of this limited sample, it is argued that traditional Zulu male masculinity, while still dominant, is now being contested in the University context by some students favouring a less tradition-oriented identity. The strategies employed by the female respondents, on the other hand, suggest that Zulu women students may be beginning to reject traditional Zulu femininity in favour of more westernized identities. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2000.

The Basque people and their language have been politically oppressed for centuries. I examine the history of the Basque language and how its oppression and revitalization have been shaped by the language policies of France and Spain, the two countries spanned by the Basque country. I focus my research and predictions on the French Basque Country, which is currently subject to a more oppressive language policy than Spanish Basque Country. The number of Basque-speaking bilinguals in the French Basque Country is decreasing and attitudes regarding instruction of the language have become more apathetic. I explore governmental, community, and combined efforts to preserve and encourage use of the language and draw several conclusions about viable future revitalization efforts.