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Smartphones are omnipresent and indispensable in today’s society. Research in psychology and education points to both helpful and detrimental implications of smartphone usage for performance and well-being. Competitive and high-performance athletes represent a subsection of a demographic deeply intrenched in smartphone usage, yet few studies have shed light on the impact of smartphones usage in athletes’ lives. The overarching aim of this research was to advance knowledge on athletes’ use of smartphones. The mixed methods research program, with sequential pacing and qualitative priority, was informed by a critical realist paradigm. Data were collected through focus groups, remote tracking and surveys, and individual interviews with competitive and high-performance athletes. The research culminated in four distinct but related studies and four articles. The purpose of Study 1 was to qualitatively investigate varsity athletes’ lived experiences with smartphones. Five focus groups were conducted with a sample of 21 varsity athletes (9 men, 12 women) representing nine different sports (i.e., track and field, basketball, rowing, fencing, Nordic ski, rugby, swimming, lacrosse, and soccer). The inductive and reflexive thematic analysis led to the creation of three main themes. The first theme pertained to general usage experiences (i.e., characteristics of usage, awareness and nature of usage, restrictions of usage), revealing that social media is a focal point of athletes’ usage. The other two themes concerned athletes’ concurrent experiences of negative (i.e., stress, distraction, disengagement) and positive (i.e., self-regulation, social connectedness) smartphone usage. The majority of varsity athletes (81%) self-identified as moderate or heavy smartphone users, and relied on their devices throughout the day for communication and self-management. Findings suggest that smartphone usage exists along a continuum of negative/unhelpful to positive/helpful usage rather than as distinct “good” or “bad” usage. Usage is complex and often paradoxical for sport preparation, performance, recovery, and well-being. The purpose of Study 2 was to develop and pilot test a novel research application designed to examine, in an ecologically valid way, the prevalence and features of smartphone usage among a sample of athletes, in tandem with a selection of psychosocial variables. An interdisciplinary research team was formed to create the mobile research application and measure its tracking ability and accuracy to inform Study 3. The smartphone usage of five (n = 5) studentathletes was tracked in real-time over a 15-day period. Participants also completed a mobile self-report survey on psychosocial variables deemed important to athletes’ performance and wellbeing (i.e., mindfulness, mental health, and self-regulation). Results of the pilot study demonstrated a sizable range in total hours of smartphone usage, with an average of 31.1 hours per week, predominantly for social media. Real-time smartphone usage averages surpassed athletes’ self-reported time spent studying (20h per week) and training for sport (11.4h per week). All participants reported moderate-to-high self-regulation capacity, mindfulness, and mental health. The pilot study provided proof of feasibility for a longitudinal study using the research application and methods. It afforded the opportunity to make technical adjustments based on participant feedback, enhance usability and ecological validity, and subject the data to preliminary algorithms to extract detailed information from a large data pool. Building on Study 2, the purpose of Study 3 was to investigate the prevalence and features of competitive student-athletes’ smartphone usage and psychosocial outcomes using a longitudinal in vivo design. Over the course of one year, student-athletes’ smartphone usage was automatically tracked via the mobile app they installed on their phone and they also completed a self-report survey through the app on a monthly basis to assess self-regulation, mindfulness, mental health, stress, loneliness, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Although 20 participants volunteered to complete the study, only 10 participants consistently completed the survey and were retained in the final dataset. Descriptive analyses showed that the student-athletes used their smartphones for an average of 24.15 hours per week, predominantly for social media, and they formed two distinct user groups (i.e., heavy and light usage). Psychosocial profiles revealed they had moderate-to-high psychosocial functioning and highly nuanced changes in psychosocial outcomes and usage over time. There were no significant relationships between amount of smartphone usage and psychosocial outcomes, except for one positive relationship between usage and mental health in the winter. Findings support a new wave of literature deemphasizing a simple negative relationship between smartphone usage and psychosocial outcomes, and encourage further study of individual characteristics, such as purpose of usage. This study illustrates that although it is resource intensive, it is feasible to leverage the smartphone as an in vivo research tool to collect complex, ecologically valid usage data in tandem with psychosocial self-reports. It lays a foundation for larger-scale studies to assess the impact of athletes’ usage on their psychosocial functioning. The purpose of Study 4 was to qualitatively examine the self-regulatory processes, conditions, and outcomes related to the smartphone usage of competitive and high-performance athletes, and to postulate a model to inform research and applied practice in this area. Guided by the results of the previous studies showing prevalent social media usage among athletes, Study 4 also furthered explored athletes’ use of social media. Twenty-four (n = 24) competitive and highperformance athletes from eight different sports participated in individual, in-depth interviews. A directed content analysis, informed by the models of self-regulated learning and self-regulatory strength, was performed to analyze the data. While many themes aligned with components of both or either self-regulation models, new themes were generated. To account for all the data and explain athletes’ smartphone usage in and around the sport setting, the “Self-regulation and Smartphone Usage Model” (SSUM) was created. The SSUM includes five broad components: (a) self-regulation capacity, (b) self-regulation processes, (c) conditions (i.e., context of usage, type of usage, awareness of usage, autonomy of usage, and concurrence of usage), (d) outcomes, and (e) self-regulation competencies. Findings support a paradoxical relationship between smartphone usage and self-regulation. On the one hand, athletes use their smartphones to engage and master helpful self-regulation processes and on the other, they face increased self-regulatory demands because of their smartphones—particularly social media—which can lead to self-regulatory depletion. Overall, the current research sheds light on a new facet of competitive athletes’ livesthe smartphone. It underscores a deeply individualized, nuanced relationship between athletes and their phones, regardless of age, sex, type of sport, or competitive level. These devices can both inhibit and facilitate self-regulation and influence performance and well-being. Regardless of the purpose of usage, smartphones must be effectively managed. Thus, athletes must develop self-regulatory competencies specifically for this tool. This research shows the value of tracking real-time usage of phones and provides a conceptual map for working with athletes to leverage the benefits of smartphone technology.

<p>The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of depleted self-regulation on skillful task performance. Participants completed a baseline dart-tossing task (20 tosses), and were instructed to toss as quickly and as close to the bulls-eye as possible when a particular cue light flashed. Participants then underwent a self-regulatory depleting (experimental) or a non-depleting (control) manipulation before completing a second round of dart tossing. Measures of accuracy, reaction time, and myoelectrical activity of the biceps and triceps were collected along with self-report measures of psychological resilience and trait self-control.</p> <p>As hypothesized, participants in the experimental condition had poorer mean accuracy at round two than control condition participants, as well as a significant decline in accuracy from round one to round two. These effects were moderated by trait self-control; experimental group participants with higher trait self-control were more accurate in round two than experimental group participants with lower trait self-control. Experimental group participants also demonstrated poorer consistency in accuracy compared to control group participants at round two, and a significant deterioration in consistency from round one to round two. The only significant finding regarding reaction time was that consistency improved significantly for the control group but not for the experimental group.</p> <p>The results of this study provide evidence that ego depletion effects occur for skill-based physical task performance, especially in regards to accuracy. These findings provide further support for the utility of the limited strength model and suggest that self-regulatory depletion can impact performance on skill-based physical tasks.</p> / Master of Science in Kinesiology

The purpose of this study was to uncover the unique and devastating consequences of untreated head injuries in a population that self-monitors their return to play after an injury. The secondary purpose was to identify the general perceptions of head injuries in the action sports culture and the themes that are common challenges for action sport athletes during their TBI rehabilitation in order to examine the coping skills that were used during their attempt to return to their sport. Seven athletes were interviewed. The sports represented were snowboarding, BMX racing, BMX freestyle, and motocross. The interviews assessed the following concepts: injury experience, symptoms, recovery, perception of the sport, return to sport, personality factors, and perception of head injuries. The interviews were transcribed and coded by the researcher in order to identify common themes and perceptions. The results indicated that the high frequency of injuries in action sports contributes partially to the perception of head injuries. It is a part of the culture to ignore injuries and push through pain. While the athletes have found success with this method in the past, it takes personal experience to convince them that head injuries should not be treated in the same manner. Since many of the athletes were unaware of their exact medical diagnosis, the severity of their injuries were established by how much their symptoms affected their day-to-day life. Physical symptoms were the most commonly reported, but psychological symptoms had a greater affect on the participants' day-to-day life. Generally, the participants who returned to play had higher levels of self-efficacy and self-awareness than the athletes who were not able to return. However, it is unclear from the study if the athletes had high self-efficacy because they were able to return, or if they were able to return because of their pre-injury characteristics. There was also a general consensus among the participants that more support and awareness about brain injuries were needed in their sport. / Kinesiology

Researchers and consultants alike agree that coaching is a stressful job and coaches are not well-equipped to handle the stress (Frey, 2007; Giges et al., 2004). Furthermore, coaches themselves admit they are not always able to shield their athletes from their stress and may even transfer it to their athletes (Olusoga et al., 2010). Mindfulness training has been shown to increase well-being, namely by reducing stress and burnout, while increasing emotional regulation, attention, and satisfaction, among other benefits (Baer, 2003; Chiesa & Serretti, 2009). The Mindfulness Training for Coaches (MTC) program has shown promise as an intervention to increase well-being and reduce stress in coaches (Longshore & Sachs, 2015). The current study aimed to replicate the positive impacts on well-being of the MTC as well as determine if athletes of MTC-trained coaches also benefit. Sixteen Division I and III collegiate coaches attended an initial MTC training session, with eight coaches going on to complete the program. Pre- and Post- measures of mindfulness, emotion regulation, coaching issues, and coaching behavior were taken at the start and end of training. State measures of stress, sport emotion, and mindfulness were taken bi-weekly. Coaches who completed the training were also interviewed about their experiences following the training, while those who dropped out completed a follow-up survey. Thirty-four DI and III athletes completed pre-test measures of satisfaction, burnout, and coaching behavior, with 11 responding at post-test. Repeated-measures ANOVAs were conducted and results showed that coaches who completed the MTC had significantly improved trait emotion regulation, while also reporting generally stable emotions, improved curiosity and decentering, and significantly less perceived stress throughout the training. In contrast, sport mindfulness, coaching issues stress, and coaching behaviors did not see significant change. Interviews revealed two categories (Program Process and Program Experience), four concepts (Motivation and adherence, Mechanics, Outcomes, Impacts) and multiple themes for each concept. Coaches who dropped out after the initial session did not significantly differ from completed training coaches at the start of the MTC. Follow-up surveys revealed one category (Program Involvement) with three concepts (Motivation and adherence, Mechanics, and Experience) and multiple themes. Limitations, including small sample size and lack of a control group, were discussed, along with recommendations for researchers and practitioners, as well as future directions. The current study suggests that the MTC program is an effective intervention to help coaches manage their emotions, reduce stress, and positively impact their coaching and life. / Kinesiology

This study was conducted using qualitative measures to determine how head coaches at NCAA Division IA schools perceive the field of sport psychology. Specifically, the following areas were addressed: (a) How do collegiate coaches perceive of the merit of the various titles used by professionals working in the area of sport and exercise psychology, (b) How do coaches perceive the field of sport psychology as a whole (i.e., the potential benefits of employing an sport psychology consultant (SPC)), and (c) What potential barriers must be overcome in order to make sport psychology more appealing and available to coaches and how might those barriers be overcome? A descriptive qualitative design was used to examine the coaches' perceptions. Fourteen coaches participated in semi-structured interviews to gain insight into how the coaching community perceives the field of sport psychology. All interviews were conducted over the phone, and the time required for the interviews ranged from 22-51 minutes (M = 34.5 minutes). Coaches' ages ranged from 38-64 years (M = 48 years) with the number of years as head coach at their respective schools ranging from 3-25 years (M = 12.29 years). Once completed, all interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed through an inductive open coding process to allow themes to emerge from the data. Four major themes emerged from the data (i.e., perceptions, desires, barriers, and hierarchy), with 10 associated subthemes that described the overall perceptions and impressions of the participants. The coaches generally had a positive view of sport psychology and the services that SPCs are able to offer. However, they often expressed the fact that, despite their own personal opinions, they felt confined by a number of barriers that prevented them from hiring an SPC. Unfortunately, sport psychology is still viewed largely as too costly of a service and, as such, falls rather low on the list of needs that coaches must consider in the execution of their duties. In an attempt to provide a better understanding of the needs of collegiate coaches, a theoretical model for understanding where sport psychology ranks with regards to other support personnel was developed. / Kinesiology

Women make up only 7% of the incarcerated population (Guerino, Harrison, & Sabol, 2012). However, this number is rising exponentially. The female prison population has increased eight-fold since 1980 (Carson & Gionelli, 2013). Up to 70% of women who are incarcerated will recidivate (Mallik-Kane & Vischer, 2008). A major contributor to this rapid increase and high rate of recidivism is that women's physical and mental health needs are not met while they are incarcerated. Creating gender sensitive programming that addresses women's physical and mental health needs while they are incarcerated and that can influence their lives after they leave could help decrease recidivism and increase the quality of life of thousands (Bloom, Owen, & Covington, 2003). While structured exercise programs are being offered with more frequency in women's prisons to help address these mental and physical health problems, attendance has been low and program staff struggle to retain participants. This research examined women's motivation to exercise, what they felt were benefits of engaging in physical activity, and what they perceived the barriers to physical activity are while incarcerated. The study was conducted in conjunction with an indoor cycling class being offered at the Philadelphia County Women's prison. Twenty-four women enrolled in the study and completed pre-program interviews and pencil and paper measures. Twelve women completed a follow up test; six graduated from the cycling program; six dropped out. Results show that women who build connections (relatedness) with instructors and peers are more likely to adhere to a structured exercise program, and that the basic psychological needs laid out by Self-Determination Theory are related to adherence. Additionally, women can internalize a range of reasons for and benefits of exercise that can help them overcome a range of institutional, individual, and environment barriers evident in a correctional setting. / Kinesiology

This qualitative study examined the athletic retirement processes of Finnish female elite distance runners retrospectively, and was loosely based on the theoretical-conceptual background of sport career transition models (Stambulova, 2003; Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994). The participants were Finnish female distance runners who have competed at the national level, or at the international level as members of the Finnish national track and field team. In Finland, the athletic retirement process has not been studied extensively, especially among distance runners. A total of nine former female runners who had retired 10 years prior and no less than one year ago participated in the study. The qualitative data were collected by conducting semi-structured interviews in Finland, using an interview guide constructed by Kadlcik and Flemr (2008) as a model. Seven of the interviews were performed face-to-face, one via Skype, and one via telephone. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and a total of seven themes with 25 subthemes emerged from the data. The themes that emerged included: (1) avenues to become a distance runner, (2) meaning of running, (3) pre-retirement conditions, (4) retirement, (5) factors affecting quality of retirement, (6) major effects of retirement, and (7) current life. Several reasons for sport career termination were identified, loss of motivation being the most prevalent. Most athletes did not have a plan for how to deal with retirement, although studying and other interests played an important role when methods of adaptation were discussed. As in previous studies conducted in other countries, the former Finnish athletes experienced significant changes in many aspects of their lives, including social, psychological and health. Overall, the participants reported a challenging, but not overwhelming athletic career retirement process, with two out of nine participants stating that the transition was somewhat difficult. Recommendations for researchers and practitioners are also discussed. / Kinesiology

Coaches' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about mental health – the construct of mental health literacy (MHL) – affects teams' mental health (MH) climates and the early detection, referral, and treatment of athletes' MH concerns. Thus, assessing collegiate coaches' MHL, and the factors related to its presence, is critical. Using the Mental Health Literacy Scale, I surveyed 1,571 NCAA coaches (Mage = 37.5 years, SD = 11.8; 51.4% cisgender female; 85.9% White) regarding their MHL and related demographic and MH-experience factors, including their belief regarding MH and sport performance. Overall, 99.9% of the coaches believed that athletes' MH affected their sport performances. Through hierarchical regression analyses, I found that coaches' exposure to MH treatment, their perceived helpfulness of MH treatment, their gender (i.e., woman), number of years coaching (i.e., fewer years), and NCAA Division in which they currently coach (i.e., DIII) were related significantly to their MHL, explaining 15.5% of variance. Coaches' race/ethnicity was not related to MHL. These findings provide insight on hiring and educating coaches, and hiring appropriately trained and licensed MH and sport psychology professionals. Specifically, coach education should be focused and practical: signs and symptoms of common MH concerns disorders; the ubiquity of MH concerns among athletes; how to talk to athletes about MH and suicide; and how to make timely, efficient, and respectful referrals following that system's specific procedures. Such education would be particularly beneficial for male coaches or those who have been coaching longer.