Neste trabalho foi realizado um estudo comparativo entre juntas dissimilares produzidas pelo processo FSpW sem e com a utilização de Zn como metal intermediário tendo a finalidade de investigar a eficácia da adição deste metal no comportamento mecânico das juntas, bem como avaliar sua influência nas características microestruturais das juntas soldadas. As juntas foram produzidas com ligas de Al AA5754-H24 e Mg AZ31-O, de particular interesse do setor automotivo. Nas condições de soldagem com metal intermediário, chapas de Al revestido com Zn por galvanização foram usadas. As propriedades mecânicas das juntas foram avaliadas através de ensaios com carregamento quasi-estáticos e dinâmicos, sendo então correlacionados com as características microestruturais. Através das análises constatou-se que a aplicação de Zn como metal intermediário mostrou-se efetiva na redução do volume de compostos intermetálicos formados na interface da solda e consequentemente, obteve-se um aumento do desempenho mecânico de cerca de 48 % no ensaio de cisalhamento por tração, 230% no ensaio de tração cruzada e de 35,31 % no ensaio de fadiga quando em comparação a juntas soldadas diretamente entre as chapas de AA5754-H24 e AZ31-O. / In this research was carried out a comparative study between dissimilar joints produced by means of the process FSpW without and with applying Zn as an intermediary metal with the purpose of investigating the effectiveness of the addition of this metal in the mechanical behavior of joints, as well as to assess its influence on the microstructural characteristics of the welded joints. The joints were produced with the AA5754-H24 Al alloy and the AZ31-O Mg alloy, materials of particular interest to the automotive industry. For the welding conditions with the Zn interlayer Al sheets coated by hot deep galvanizing were used. The mechanical properties of the welded joints were evaluated in terms of quasi-static and dynamic load and then correlated with the microstructural features. Through the analyzes it has been verified that the addition of Zn as an intermediary metal proved to be effective in reducing the amount of the intermetallic compound formed at the weld interface and consequently the mechanical performance increased about 48 % in the lap shear strength test, 230 % in the cross tensile strength test and 35,31 % in the fatigue test when compared to the welded joints produced by the direct contact among the AA5754-H24 and the AZ31-O sheets.

Neste trabalho foi realizado um estudo comparativo entre juntas dissimilares produzidas pelo processo FSpW sem e com a utilização de Zn como metal intermediário tendo a finalidade de investigar a eficácia da adição deste metal no comportamento mecânico das juntas, bem como avaliar sua influência nas características microestruturais das juntas soldadas. As juntas foram produzidas com ligas de Al AA5754-H24 e Mg AZ31-O, de particular interesse do setor automotivo. Nas condições de soldagem com metal intermediário, chapas de Al revestido com Zn por galvanização foram usadas. As propriedades mecânicas das juntas foram avaliadas através de ensaios com carregamento quasi-estáticos e dinâmicos, sendo então correlacionados com as características microestruturais. Através das análises constatou-se que a aplicação de Zn como metal intermediário mostrou-se efetiva na redução do volume de compostos intermetálicos formados na interface da solda e consequentemente, obteve-se um aumento do desempenho mecânico de cerca de 48 % no ensaio de cisalhamento por tração, 230% no ensaio de tração cruzada e de 35,31 % no ensaio de fadiga quando em comparação a juntas soldadas diretamente entre as chapas de AA5754-H24 e AZ31-O. / In this research was carried out a comparative study between dissimilar joints produced by means of the process FSpW without and with applying Zn as an intermediary metal with the purpose of investigating the effectiveness of the addition of this metal in the mechanical behavior of joints, as well as to assess its influence on the microstructural characteristics of the welded joints. The joints were produced with the AA5754-H24 Al alloy and the AZ31-O Mg alloy, materials of particular interest to the automotive industry. For the welding conditions with the Zn interlayer Al sheets coated by hot deep galvanizing were used. The mechanical properties of the welded joints were evaluated in terms of quasi-static and dynamic load and then correlated with the microstructural features. Through the analyzes it has been verified that the addition of Zn as an intermediary metal proved to be effective in reducing the amount of the intermetallic compound formed at the weld interface and consequently the mechanical performance increased about 48 % in the lap shear strength test, 230 % in the cross tensile strength test and 35,31 % in the fatigue test when compared to the welded joints produced by the direct contact among the AA5754-H24 and the AZ31-O sheets.

Dans l’industrie automobile, les exigences en matière d’émissions polluantes conduisent à alléger les véhicules, notamment en réduisant l’épaisseur des tôles. Ce travail en partenariat avec ArcelorMittal porte sur le soudage par résistance par point de tôles fines d’acier. L’objectif est d’identifier les phénomènes qui induisent les difficultés de soudabilité opératoire rencontrées avec une combinaison dissymétrique de trois tôles revêtues, incluant une tôle très mince galvanisée de moins de 0,6 mm, une tôle de DP600 et une tôle en Usibor® emboutie à chaud. Des observations par caméra infrarouge montrent que les échauffements initiaux se produisent principalement au niveau des interfaces avec la tôle d’Usibor®1500, et que le noyau se forme du côté de cette tôle, loin de la tôle mince. Les valeurs très élevées des résistances de contact électrique et thermique, mesurées aux interfaces avec la tôle d’Usibor®, sont imputables au revêtement Alusi® et sont à l’origine des forts échauffements initiaux observés à ces interfaces. Un modèle numérique, limité aux aspects électrothermiques et développé sur COMSOL Multiphysics®, a permis de montrer que la zone fondue s’initie très rapidement dans la tôle d’Usibor® 1500 sous l’effet des fortes résistances de contact adjacentes, et que son développement en épaisseur et diamètre est piloté par les évolutions des rayons de contact électrode-tôle. Les résistances de contact entre électrode et tôle mince, le profil du courant de soudage et les rayons de courbure des faces actives des électrodes sont les paramètres prépondérants à optimiser pour améliorer la pénétration du noyau dans la tôle mince. / In the automotive industry, the requirements for polluting emissions lead to light vehicles, especially in decreasing the steel sheet thickness. This work in partnership with ArcelorMittal focuses on resistance spot welding of steel sheets. The aim is to identify the phenomena that induce operating weldability difficulties encountered with an asymmetrical stack of three coated steel sheets, including a very thin galvanized sheet of less than 0.6 mm, a sheet of DP600, and a hot stamped Usibor® sheet. Infrared camera observations show that the initial heating takes placeat the interfaces with the Usibor®1500 sheet, and that the nugget appears inside this sheet, away from the thin sheet. The very high values of the electrical and thermal contact resistances, measured at the interfaces with the Usibor®1500 sheet, are due to the Alusi® coating and are at the origin of the strong initial heating at these interfaces. A numerical model, limited to the electro- thermal aspects and developed with COMSOL Multiphysics®, shows that the nugget is initiated very quickly in Usibor®1500 sheet under the effect of adjacent contact resistances, and that its development is driven by the evolutions of the electrode-sheet contact areas. The contact resistances between the electrode and the thin sheet, the welding current evolution, and the curvature radius of electrode tips are the most efficient parameters to be optimized to improve the penetration of the nugget in the thin sheet.

Friction Spot Welding (FSpW) é um processo de solda ponto por fricção, que opera na fase sólida do material e permite unir duas ou mais chapas de metal sobrepostas. Além de ser bastante usado para soldar materiais leves, ele também é aplicável a qualquer material que apresente boa plasticidade. Neste trabalho são analisados dois materiais: AA Alclad 2024-T351 e AA 2024-T351, diferindo entre si no uso, ou não, da camada de proteção contra a corrosão (Alclad). As uniões são feitas sob os mesmos parâmetros do processo, previamente estudados para o material com Alclad. Dois parâmetros são utilizados: um dito ótimo, capaz de produzir soldas com bom desempenho mecânico e reprodutibilidade e um segundo, dito insuficiente, por produzir soldas de baixo desempenho mecânico e baixa reprodutibilidade. Pretende-se, com este trabalho, avaliar os efeitos que a camada Alclad pode acarretar nas juntas soldadas, em seu desempenho mecânico, no modo de fratura, na microestrutura e na geometria da junta. Os resultados apresentam uma grande influência do Alclad, tendo em vista que durante o processo o recobrimento migra das superfícies das chapas para o centro da solda. Assim, uma interface deste material, que possui baixa resistência mecânica, é criada, influenciando negativamente o desempenho da junta e alterando o modo de fratura. O principal escopo desta dissertação é realizar uma análise da fratura do ensaio de cisalhamento, com o uso do método de elementos finitos. Portanto, fazse necessário estudar e desenvolver um modelo numérico capaz de representar a nucleação, coalescimento, formação de uma ou mais trincas e a consequente propagação até a fratura do corpo. Para a realização da análise utilizou-se o modelo numérico de fratura Johnson-Cook (JC), o qual expressa a tensão equivalente como uma função da deformação plástica, da taxa de deformação e da temperatura. Realizou-se, ainda, um estudo acerca das teorias do Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM), bem como se fez necessário obter novos parâmetros para o modelo, que descrevessem o fenômeno e o material. Nesse sentido, serão realizadas duas análises, sendo que a primeira considera o efeito da camada de Alclad e, a segunda, considera uma solda livre de defeitos. Espera-se identificar os locais em que trinca é nucleada e analisar a resposta da junta, passo a passo, durante a propagação da trinca, até a fratura completa do corpo. E, por fim, avaliar a interferência no modelo numérico da presença da camada contra a corrosão Alclad. / Friction Spot Welding (FSpW) is a friction spot weld process, it operates in the solid-state of the material and allows joining two or more sheets in overlap configuration. It is used to join light weight materials, also is suitable to any material that shows good ductility. In this work two different materials are analyzed AA Alclad 2024-T351 e AA 2024-T351, between them the use, or not, of the corrosion protection layer Alclad. The welds are made under the same process parameters previously studied to the material with Alclad. Two parameters are utilized: the first one is the optimum parameter capable to produce welds with good mechanical performance and reproducibility, and another one inadequate because it produces joins with poor mechanical response and reproducibility. It is intended with this work, to evaluate the effects that the Alclad layer can cause in the welds, in its mechanical performance, fracture mode, microstructure and geometry of the join. The results showed a considerable influence of the Alclad, considering that during the process, it migrates from the sheet surface to the center of the weld. Thus, an interface of this material, that has a very low hardness, is created, influencing negatively the performance of the weld and changing the fracture mode. The aim of this dissertation is to perform an analysis of the fracture from the lap shear test, using the finite element method. Therefore, becomes necessary study and develop a numerical model capable to represent the nucleation, coalescence, formation of one or more cracks and, the consequent propagation until the fracture of the body. To perform the analysis it was used the numerical model of fracture called Johnson-Cook (JC), which expresses the equivalent stress as a function of the plastic deformation, the strain rate and the temperature. It was also made a study about the Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) theories, and it was necessary to obtain new parameters for the model, that describe the phenomenon and the material. In this sense, it will be performed two analyses, and the first considers the Alclad layer and, the second, considers a weld without defects. It is expected to identify the places where the crack nucleated, and analyze the behavior of the weld, step by step, during the crack propagation, until the complete fracture of the component. And, finally, evaluate the interference in the numerical model of the presence of the protection corrosion layer Alclad.

Friction Spot Welding (FSpW) é um processo de solda ponto por fricção, que opera na fase sólida do material e permite unir duas ou mais chapas de metal sobrepostas. Além de ser bastante usado para soldar materiais leves, ele também é aplicável a qualquer material que apresente boa plasticidade. Neste trabalho são analisados dois materiais: AA Alclad 2024-T351 e AA 2024-T351, diferindo entre si no uso, ou não, da camada de proteção contra a corrosão (Alclad). As uniões são feitas sob os mesmos parâmetros do processo, previamente estudados para o material com Alclad. Dois parâmetros são utilizados: um dito ótimo, capaz de produzir soldas com bom desempenho mecânico e reprodutibilidade e um segundo, dito insuficiente, por produzir soldas de baixo desempenho mecânico e baixa reprodutibilidade. Pretende-se, com este trabalho, avaliar os efeitos que a camada Alclad pode acarretar nas juntas soldadas, em seu desempenho mecânico, no modo de fratura, na microestrutura e na geometria da junta. Os resultados apresentam uma grande influência do Alclad, tendo em vista que durante o processo o recobrimento migra das superfícies das chapas para o centro da solda. Assim, uma interface deste material, que possui baixa resistência mecânica, é criada, influenciando negativamente o desempenho da junta e alterando o modo de fratura. O principal escopo desta dissertação é realizar uma análise da fratura do ensaio de cisalhamento, com o uso do método de elementos finitos. Portanto, fazse necessário estudar e desenvolver um modelo numérico capaz de representar a nucleação, coalescimento, formação de uma ou mais trincas e a consequente propagação até a fratura do corpo. Para a realização da análise utilizou-se o modelo numérico de fratura Johnson-Cook (JC), o qual expressa a tensão equivalente como uma função da deformação plástica, da taxa de deformação e da temperatura. Realizou-se, ainda, um estudo acerca das teorias do Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM), bem como se fez necessário obter novos parâmetros para o modelo, que descrevessem o fenômeno e o material. Nesse sentido, serão realizadas duas análises, sendo que a primeira considera o efeito da camada de Alclad e, a segunda, considera uma solda livre de defeitos. Espera-se identificar os locais em que trinca é nucleada e analisar a resposta da junta, passo a passo, durante a propagação da trinca, até a fratura completa do corpo. E, por fim, avaliar a interferência no modelo numérico da presença da camada contra a corrosão Alclad. / Friction Spot Welding (FSpW) is a friction spot weld process, it operates in the solid-state of the material and allows joining two or more sheets in overlap configuration. It is used to join light weight materials, also is suitable to any material that shows good ductility. In this work two different materials are analyzed AA Alclad 2024-T351 e AA 2024-T351, between them the use, or not, of the corrosion protection layer Alclad. The welds are made under the same process parameters previously studied to the material with Alclad. Two parameters are utilized: the first one is the optimum parameter capable to produce welds with good mechanical performance and reproducibility, and another one inadequate because it produces joins with poor mechanical response and reproducibility. It is intended with this work, to evaluate the effects that the Alclad layer can cause in the welds, in its mechanical performance, fracture mode, microstructure and geometry of the join. The results showed a considerable influence of the Alclad, considering that during the process, it migrates from the sheet surface to the center of the weld. Thus, an interface of this material, that has a very low hardness, is created, influencing negatively the performance of the weld and changing the fracture mode. The aim of this dissertation is to perform an analysis of the fracture from the lap shear test, using the finite element method. Therefore, becomes necessary study and develop a numerical model capable to represent the nucleation, coalescence, formation of one or more cracks and, the consequent propagation until the fracture of the body. To perform the analysis it was used the numerical model of fracture called Johnson-Cook (JC), which expresses the equivalent stress as a function of the plastic deformation, the strain rate and the temperature. It was also made a study about the Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) theories, and it was necessary to obtain new parameters for the model, that describe the phenomenon and the material. In this sense, it will be performed two analyses, and the first considers the Alclad layer and, the second, considers a weld without defects. It is expected to identify the places where the crack nucleated, and analyze the behavior of the weld, step by step, during the crack propagation, until the complete fracture of the component. And, finally, evaluate the interference in the numerical model of the presence of the protection corrosion layer Alclad.

Neste trabalho foi realizado um estudo comparativo entre juntas dissimilares produzidas pelo processo FSpW sem e com a utilização de Zn como metal intermediário tendo a finalidade de investigar a eficácia da adição deste metal no comportamento mecânico das juntas, bem como avaliar sua influência nas características microestruturais das juntas soldadas. As juntas foram produzidas com ligas de Al AA5754-H24 e Mg AZ31-O, de particular interesse do setor automotivo. Nas condições de soldagem com metal intermediário, chapas de Al revestido com Zn por galvanização foram usadas. As propriedades mecânicas das juntas foram avaliadas através de ensaios com carregamento quasi-estáticos e dinâmicos, sendo então correlacionados com as características microestruturais. Através das análises constatou-se que a aplicação de Zn como metal intermediário mostrou-se efetiva na redução do volume de compostos intermetálicos formados na interface da solda e consequentemente, obteve-se um aumento do desempenho mecânico de cerca de 48 % no ensaio de cisalhamento por tração, 230% no ensaio de tração cruzada e de 35,31 % no ensaio de fadiga quando em comparação a juntas soldadas diretamente entre as chapas de AA5754-H24 e AZ31-O. / In this research was carried out a comparative study between dissimilar joints produced by means of the process FSpW without and with applying Zn as an intermediary metal with the purpose of investigating the effectiveness of the addition of this metal in the mechanical behavior of joints, as well as to assess its influence on the microstructural characteristics of the welded joints. The joints were produced with the AA5754-H24 Al alloy and the AZ31-O Mg alloy, materials of particular interest to the automotive industry. For the welding conditions with the Zn interlayer Al sheets coated by hot deep galvanizing were used. The mechanical properties of the welded joints were evaluated in terms of quasi-static and dynamic load and then correlated with the microstructural features. Through the analyzes it has been verified that the addition of Zn as an intermediary metal proved to be effective in reducing the amount of the intermetallic compound formed at the weld interface and consequently the mechanical performance increased about 48 % in the lap shear strength test, 230 % in the cross tensile strength test and 35,31 % in the fatigue test when compared to the welded joints produced by the direct contact among the AA5754-H24 and the AZ31-O sheets.

Die Analyse der geometrischen Voraussetzungen der Schweißstelle bildet die Grundlage der Arbeit. Es wurde ein künstlicher Passfehler definiert, an welchem eine systematische Variation von geometrischen Parametern des Spaltes zwischen den Blechen an 22MnB5 und DC04 durchgeführt wurde. Erstmals werden die Kontaktradien durch Kennzahlen in analytischen Zusammenhang mit der Verlagerung der Wärmefreisetzung in der Umgebung der Kontakte gebracht. Am Vergütungsstahl wird vorrangig der Kontaktradius zwischen den Blechen infolge des Spaltes verringert. Erhöhte Elektrodenkraft kann dies nicht kompensieren. Messungen des dynamischen elektrischen Widerstandes charakterisieren das elektrische Verhalten der Schweißstelle und wurden mittels des KMK-Modells implizit auf den temperatur- und druckabhängigen spezifischen Übergangswiderstand übertragen. Der feueraluminierte Vergütungsstahl zeigt am Blech-Blech Kontakt einen über dreimal so hohen Übergangswiderstand wie am Elektrode-Blech Kontakt. Zeigt der 22MnB5 über 600 K grundsätzlich einen größeren Übergangswiderstand als andere Stähle, so ist bei niedrigeren Temperaturen sein Übergangswiderstand kleiner als an verschiedenen anderen Werkstoffen. Schweißversuche zeigten, dass der Linsendurchmesser an 22MnB5 infolge des Passabstandesunter den Mindestdurchmesser abnimmt, damit einher geht eine Absenkung der Schweißenergie um maximal 15 %. Durch Erhöhung des Schweißstromes sind qualitätsgerechte Schweißungen auch am Spalt möglich. Die Spritzergrenze verschiebt sich durch den Spalt zu größeren Strömen hin. Eine vertiefte Analyse der Wärmeströme zeigte, dass mindestens 30 % der Schweißwärme an den Elektrode-Blech Kontakten freigesetzt werden, mindestens 48 % entfallen auf den Stoffwiderstand des Bleches. Die Absenkung der Schweißwärme am Passfehler ist ausschließlich auf einen verminderten Stoffwiderstand zurückzuführen, welcher durch verstärktes Einsinken der Elektroden hervorgerufen wird. / The analysis of the geometric prerequisites at the weld site is the fundament of this work. An artificial form error has been defined, on which the systematic Variation of geometric parameters of the gap between sheets of 22MnB5 and DC04 have been carried out. For the first time, the contact radii have been brought into analytical relation to the relocation of heat release in the contact’s environment. On the heat-treatable steel predominantly the contact radius between the sheets is decreased as a result of the gap. Increased electrode forces cannot compensate the effect. Measurements of the electric resistance on the accurately-fitting joint characterize the electric behaviour of the weld and have been implicitly transferred to the temperature and pressure-dependent specific transition resistance by means of numerical simulation. On the sheet-sheet contact, the hot-dip aluminized heat-treatable steel showed a three times larger transition resistance than at the electrode-sheet contact. Whereas the 22MnB5 fundamentally has a bigger transition resistance than other steels above 600 K, at lower temperatures his transition resistance is superseded by that of different other steels. Welding experiments proved, that the nugget diameter in 22MnB5 is reduced below the minimum criterion by the gap. Along with this, the welding energy is reduced by a maximum of 15 %. By increasing the welding current welded joints meeting the quality criterion can be produced as well when a gap is present. The splash limit is moved to larger currents as an effect of the gap. An in-depth review of the heat flows in the welding process showed, the at least 30 % of the weld heat are released at the sheet-sheet contacts, at least 48 % are allotted to the bulk resistance of the sheets. The decrease of weld heat at the gap is exclusively attributed to a decrease of the bulk resistance of the sheets, which is generated by increased sink-in of the electrodes.

The aim of this thesis was to design a robotic cell for spot welding of seat reinforcement and the subsequent automatic transport of the part from the cell. Both construction plan and process simulation in Process Simulate should be performed there. It is therefore an application for the automotive industry. The cell consists of a device into which the operator places the parts and is placed on the designed turntable. The welding is performed by two Kuka robots and welding tongs attached to them. The thesis deals with the design of the structure and the choice of individual components, as well as their appropriate deployment in the cell. Along with the design of the cell, the simulation was processed in the software. The output of the thesis is a 3D model of the workplace, simulation of the whole process of welding and manipulation and evaluation of the cell cycle using the RCS module.

Es wird ein Überblick über ein Modell zur Simulation des Punktschweißvorganges in Ansys APDL gegeben, Kernproblem sind darin die reibungsbehafteten Kontaktstellen. Die Aspekte der Kontaktmodellierung werden in Zusammenhang mit den Besonderheiten des Modells gebracht. Es wird auf Möglichkeiten der numerischen Kontaktstabilisierung mit Bordmitteln eingegangen. Ferner wird ein Ansatz einer zusätzlichen Kontaktstabilisierung dargestellt und bewertet.

Increasing the use of Ultra High Strength Steels (UHSS) in vehicle bodystructures is important for reducing weight and cutting CO2 emissions. This thesis investigates challenges in resistance welding that can be a barrier to implementing UHSS as a replacement for low strength steels in vehicle structures. Empirical research has been performed to offer new approaches for improved joint strength and to increase knowledge on cracking mechanisms in resistance projection welding and resistance spot welding of UHSS. By optimising the current build-up phase and peak current during the first milliseconds of weld time, it was shown that the strength could be improved by up to two-fold for projection welded joints. An approach to improve the ductility and strength of resistance spotwelds in UHSS using reduced cooling time was unsuccessful. The reduced cooling rate after weld metal solidification did not fully create the desired softened microstructure. The study on the surface cracking mechanism in resistance spot welded dual-phase UHSS showed that cracking is linked to the galvanization method. It is proposed that formation of aluminium oxide layers on the electrode tips increases the surface temperature and thereby increases the probability for liquid metal embrittlement and surface cracking. / <p>QC 20150526</p>