The aim of this study was to explore the properties of thermal field in spray cooling via experiments. The nozzle diameter (dj) used herein was 200 £gm and the heating surface measured 45 mm ¡Ñ 45 mm. The study was divided into two parts for experiments and analyses. In the first part, with DI water and FC-72 (dielectric liquid) as the working media, the changes in the liquid film thickness on the heater surface under different values of heating power were observed; heat input (Q) and value of gauge pressure (£GP) were taken as the main parameters for discussing the influence of these two parameters on the liquid film thickness in spray cooling. The second part, with DI water as the working medium, adopted the £gLIF system (fluorescent dye: Rhodamine B; concentration: 1.5¡Ñ10-4 M) to measure the effect of different working medium temperatures (23 ¢XC, 30 ¢XC, and 40 ¢XC) on the global temperature distribution, liquid film temperature changes on the heater surface and the thermal field condition of spray cooling, with an aim of exploring the internal physical phenomena of the droplets during cooling.

Orientadores: Priscilla Efraim, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-26T16:56:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lopes_JuliceDutra_D.pdf: 26424877 bytes, checksum: eced1650a81af1c56e7eb7df9b5ca109 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: A cristalização de gorduras é um fenômeno complexo que, se controlada, pode ser aplicada em diversos setores das indústrias químicas e de alimentos. Na produção de chocolates, o uso de agentes ativos de nucleação pode se dar pela incorporação de triacilgliceróis de alto ponto de fusão, fundidos ou na forma sólida, à massa de chocolate ou à manteiga de cacau, resultando em um grande número de núcleos de cristalização bem definidos, que consistem na base para a ordenação estrutural do sistema, podendo melhorar e/ou acelerar a etapa de temperagem de chocolates. Baseando-se nestes fatos, o objetivo deste trabalho foi produzir e caracterizar micropartículas lipídicas sólidas (SLM) de óleos totalmente hidrogenados (hardfats) de palma (FHPO), algodão (FHCO), soja (FHSO) e crambe (FHCrO) utilizando a técnica de spray cooling (SC), a fim de se estudar a influência da adição dessas SLM como agentes de nucleação no processo de temperagem de chocolate amargo. As SLM foram produzidas variando-se os parâmetros de processo: temperatura de manutenção dos hardfats (70 a 85 °C), temperatura de solidificação das SLM (0 a 24 °C), diâmetro do atomizador (0,7 e 1 mm) e pressão do ar comprimido de atomização (1,25 a 1,75 kgf/cm2). As SLM produzidas apresentaram polimorfismo ?, formato esférico e diâmetros médios entre 56,12 e 2514,32 ?m, dependendo dos hardfats e das condições de processo utilizadas. A cinética de transição polimórfica das SLM acondicionadas a 25, 35 e 45 °C foi investigada por 141 dias, avaliando-se a configuração visual, o comportamento térmico de fusão e o polimorfismo das SLM. A transição completa das SLM para o polimorfismo de seus respectivos hardfats ocorreu de forma mais rápida no acondicionamento a 45 °C, com transição completa observada nas SLM do FHSO, FHPO e FHCO após 24 h, sem alteração do aspecto visual. Em 35 °C, a transição das SLM do FHPO e FHCO ocorreu após 4 dias e em 25 °C observou-se transição completa apenas nas SLM do FHCO. Para as SLM do FHCrO o polimorfismo ? foi predominante nos tratamentos a 25 e 35 °C e só houve transição polimórfica no tratamento a 45°C após 15 dias. Observou-se redução do tempo da etapa de temperagem de chocolates adicionados de SLM do FHSO com polimorfismo ?, os quais apresentaram tensão de ruptura e cor similares às de chocolates submetidos à temperagem realizada da forma convencional. Os resultados indicam que a técnica de SC é adequada para produção de SLM dos hardfats estudados. Porém, para o uso destas SLM como agentes de cristalização é necessária a indução da transição polimórfica para o polimorfismo mais estável, preferencialmente de forma não estática, para evitar a formação de aglomerados / Abstract: Fats crystallization is a complex phenomenon which, when controlled, can be applied in several chemical and food industries sectors. In chocolate production, the use of nucleating agents can occur by the incorporation of high melting point triglycerides, melted or in solid form. The seeds can be added directly in the chocolate mass or in the cocoa butter, resulting in a large number of well-defined crystallization nuclei, which are the basis for the structural arrangement of the fat crystal network. In this way, the seeds can improve and/or accelerate the chocolate tempering step. Based on these facts, the objective of this research was to produce and to characterize solid lipid microparticles (SLM) from fully hydrogenated oils (hardfats) of palm (FHPO), cottonseed (FHCO), soybean (FHSO) and crambe (FHCrO), using the spray cooling (SC) technique in order to study the influence of the addition of these SLM as nucleating agents in dark chocolate tempering process. The SLM were produced by varying the process parameters: hardfats maintenance temperature (70 to 85 °C), SLM solidification temperature (0 to 24 °C), nozzle diameter (0.7 to 1 mm) and atomiser air pressure (1.25 to 1.75 kgf/cm2). The SLM produced presented ? polymorphism, spherical shape and mean diameter between 56.12 and 2514.32 µm, depending on the hardfats and process conditions used. The polymorphic transition kinetics of SLM stored at 25, 35 and 45 °C was investigated by 141 days evaluating the visual configuration, the thermal melting behavior and the SLM polymorphism. The full transition from SLM to polymorphism of their respective hardfats occurred more quickly at 45 °C, with full transition of SLM observed in the SLM of FHSO, FHPO and FHCO after 24 hours, without altering the visual aspect. At 35 °C, the SLM transition of FHPO and FHCO occurred after 4 days, and at 25 °C the complete transition was observed only in the SLM of FHCO. For SLM of FHCrO, ? polymorphism was predominant in the treatments at 25 and 35 °C and there was only polymorphic transition in the treatment at 45 °C after 15 days. It was observed time reduction on the tempering chocolates steps with the addition of SLM of FHSO with ? polymorphism, which showed similar rupture tension and color to the chocolate subjected to the conventional way of tempering. The results indicate that SC technique is suitable for the SLM production of the studied hardfats. However, for use of these SLM as crystallization agents is required to induce the polymorphic transition for the most stable polymorph, preferably non-static way in order to avoid the agglomerates formation / Doutorado / Tecnologia de Alimentos / Doutora em Tecnologia de Alimentos

No / In this paper, a model for urea prilling tower with co-current flow of cooling air and urea prills (particles) is presented. The process is modelled by simultaneous solution of the differential equations for hydrodynamics, heat and mass transfer between the air and prills. The process variables such as temperature, absolute and relative humidity of air along the height of the tower were obtained from this model. Temperature and moisture distribution of urea prills and their radial and vertical velocities were also calculated. The results of the present model were compared with the counter-current operation model available in the literature. The simulation results show that heat transfer performance for co-current operation is significantly less than that of the counter-current scenario. This is more pronounced for small prills, i.e. 1.0 mm than that of the large prills. The advantage of the model is that it can be used to investigate influence of operating parameters on efficiency of the co-current process. This also helps us to set the process control strategies for design and quality control purposes of the process.

No description available.

Orientadores: Fernanda Paula Collares Queiroz, Sandra Cristina dos Santos Rocha / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-19T14:22:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pilarski_Emmanuelle_D.pdf: 13352787 bytes, checksum: 0ecea335c03bb27966c47554b420caee (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: O presente trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de (i) micropartículas lipídicas contendo bicarbonato de sódio pelo processo de spray cooling e de (ii) aglomerados de bicarbonato de sódio, utilizando-se do processo de melt agglomeration em leito vibrofluidizado. Essas tecnologias foram aplicadas com o intuito de melhorar a estabilidade desse material, uma vez que o mesmo se decompõe na presença de umidade/ou temperaturas mais elevadas. Uma mistura lipídica composta por gordura de palma totalmente hidrogenada (GPTH) e óleo de palma refinado (OP) foi empregada como material de parede/ligante que atendeu ao requisito de ponto de fusão de 55 ºC, com a proporção de 57,5 e 42,5 %, respectivamente. No processo de spray cooling, foi realizado um Delineamento Composto Central Rotacional (DCCR), com 11 ensaios, para cada um dos três diâmetros de abertura de bico atomizador estudados (??igual a 1,0; 1,2 e 1,5 mm), totalizando 33 experimentos, a fim de se avaliar o efeito da temperatura de entrada da dispersão (Te) (65 a 85 ºC) e da pressão de atomização (Pat) (1,0 a 2,0 kgf/cm2) sobre as seguintes variáveis dependentes: (i) eficiência de microencapsulação (EM, % de CO2), (ii), quantidade de bicarbonato de sódio superficial (BSS, % de CO2) e (iii) rendimento (R, em %). As micropartículas apresentaram formato esférico e estrutura de superfície irregular para os ensaios realizados. A análise estatística dos resultados mostrou que para ??= 1,0 mm, um aumento nos níveis da Te e da Pat ocasionou um decréscimo da EM; para o ??= 1,2 mm, o aumento da Te ocasionou uma melhoria nessa resposta, entretanto, a Pat quando aumentada acarretou na sua diminuição. Para o ??= 1,5 mm, essas duas variáveis apresentaram menores efeitos, onde o aumento da Pat favoreceu a EM e o aumento da Te, a sua diminuição. A Te exerceu efeito positivo no R para o ??= 1,0 mm, sem influência nessa resposta para os diâmetros 1,2 e 1,5 mm, enquanto que a Pat teve efeito positivo para ??igual a 1,0 e 1,5 mm (termo linear) e negativo para o termo quadrático deste último. Pela combinação das respostas obtidas, verificou-se que o ensaio 4, diâmetro de bico atomizador (??= 1,5 mm), altas temperatura de entrada e de pressão de atomização (Te = 82 ºC e Pat = 1,85 kgf/cm2) apresentou o melhor desempenho (eficiência 3,18 %; quantidade de bicarbonato de sódio superficial 0,17 % e rendimento 80,0 %) quando comparado com os outros diâmetros de abertura. No processamento em leito vibrofluidizado, foi realizado um DCCR, totalizando 17 ensaios, com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito das variáveis: (i) pressão de atomização (5,0 a 15,0 Psig), (ii) frequência de vibração (186 a 354 rpm) e (iii) amplitude de vibração (0,40 a 2,00 cm), sobre as variáveis dependentes (i): rendimento R (%), (ii) eficiência da aglomeração Eagl (% CO2), para as frações granulométricas de 300, 600 e 840 µm, (iii) crescimento de partícula C3,3 (%) e (iv) índice de torrões Itor (%). O material aglomerado apresentou ampla distribuição de tamanho e a nucleação dos aglomerados ocorreu pelo mecanismo de imersão. Os aglomerados apresentaram Eagl diferentes para as frações avaliadas, sendo que a maior eficiência foi observada para a fração 840 µm, seguida das frações 600 e 300 µm. Contudo, através da comparação entre a Eagl e o C3,3, observou-se que a proteção não depende somente do tamanho da partícula, mas mais importante que isso é o mecanismo de formação do aglomerado, demonstrando a complexidade do processo. Com relação à proteção do material (avaliada pela Eagl), o efeito da pressão, da frequência e da amplitude foi positivo para as frações de 300 µm e 600 e 840 µm (termos quadráticos). Pela combinação das respostas, o ensaio que apresentou melhor desempenho no leito vibrofluidizado foi a de fração 840 µm, cujos parâmetros estavam fixados em baixos valores de pressão e frequência e alta amplitude. Os resultados demonstraram que ocorreu a proteção do bicarbonato de sódio contra a liberação de CO2 para ambos os processos estudados. As técnicas demonstraram grande potencial na produção desses materiais (bicarbonato de sódio microencapsulado e bicarbonato de sódio aglomerado), que se mostram viáveis para serem utilizados na formulação de um novo fermento químico, constituído pelo bicarbonato de sódio microencapsulado ou aglomerado e pelo componente ácido, sem a necessidade do agente inerte (amido) como separador físico / Abstract: This work had the objective of developing: (i) lipid microparticles containing sodium bicarbonate obtained by spray cooling process, and (ii) sodium bicarbonate agglomeration, obtained by melt agglomeration process in a vibrofluidized bed. These technologies were applied with the objective of improving the material stability, since it decomposes in the presence of humidity and/or higher temperatures. A lipid mixture composed of 57.5 % fully hydrogenated palm fat and 42.5 % refined palm oil, whose melting point is 55 ºC, was used. In the spray cooling process, a Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) was applied, with 11 trials for each of the three nozzle atomizer diameters (?) studied (??= 1.0, 1.2 and 1.5 mm). Thirty three experiments were conducted with the objective of evaluating inlet temperature on the dispersion (65 to 85 ºC) and pressure atomization (1.0 to 2.0 kgf/cm2) on the following dependent variables: (i) microencapsulation efficiency (% CO2), (ii) amount of sodium bicarbonate on the surface (% CO2) and (iii) yield (%). The microparticles presented spherical shape and irregular surface. Statistical analysis showed that for ??= 1.0 mm and increases in levels of temperature on the dispersion and pressure atomization, the microencapsulation efficiency dropped. For ??= 1.2 mm, an increase in temperature on the dispersion led to an improvement in this response, however, when pressure atomization was increased, the microencapsulation efficiency fell. For ??= 1.5 mm, these two variables presented smaller effects, on the other hand, an increase in pressure atomization favored the microencapsulation efficiency. Increasing temperature on the dispersion, reduced the microencapsulation efficiency. Temperature on the dispersion presented a positive effect on yield for ??= 1.0 mm (this had no effect on the response for 1.2 and 1.5 mm diameters), while pressure atomization had a positive effect for d = 1.0 and 1.5 mm (linear term), its quadratic term had a negative effect on yield. By combining of dependent variables, it was found for ??= 1.5 mm, test 4, higher temperature on the dispersion and pressure atomization, presented the best performance (3.18 % higher efficiency, 0.17 % lower amount of surface sodium bicarbonate pressure and 80.0 % yield) when compared with the other diameters. In the vibrofluidized bed process, a CCRD was conducted, totaling 17 trials, to assess the effect of these independent variables: (i) atomization pressure (5.0 to 15.0 Psig), (ii) vibration frequency (186 to 354 rpm) and (iii) vibration amplitude (0.40 to 2.00 cm) on the dependent variables: (i) yield (%), (ii) agglomeration efficiency (% CO2), for the particle size fractions of 300, 600 and 840 µm (iii) particle growth (%) and (iv) lump. The agglomerated material presented ample size distribution and the nucleation mechanism occurred by immersion. The agglomeration efficiency presented different values for each fractions tested (300 µm <600 µm <840 µm). However, a comparison of agglomeration efficiency and particle growth, demonstrated that protection depends not only on particle size, but more on the formation mechanism of agglomeration particles, demonstrating its complexity. With regard to the protection of the material (assessed by agglomeration efficiency), the effect of pressure was positive for 300, 600 µm, and 840 µm fractions (quadratic terms), while the frequency had a positive effect for the three fractions. With respect to amplitude, the effect was positive on the larger particle size fractions. Considering all answers, the test that produced the best performance in the vibrofluidized bed was 840 µm fraction, whose parameters were set at low pressure and frequency values and high amplitude. The results showed that there was protection of sodium bicarbonate against the release of CO2 for both processes studied. The techniques demonstrated great potential in the production of these materials (microencapsulated sodium bicarbonate and agglomerated sodium bicarbonate particles), thus demonstrating its viability for use in the formulation of a new baking powder. A new baking soda, consisting of microencapsuled sodium bicarbonate or agglomerated and another acid compound, without the need for an inert agent (starch) as physical separator / Doutorado / Tecnologia de Alimentos / Doutor em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Cette étude concerne l’étude des écoulements diphasiques dans le cadre du refroidissement des composants électroniques en systèmes embarqués. L’étude bibliographique a permis de sélectionner le refroidissement par spray comme technique prometteuse pour dissiper des flux de chaleur au-delà de 100 W/cm2. Une étude hydraulique, utilisant de l’eau et du HFE7100 comme fluides de refroidissement, nous a permis de valider des modèles permettant de déterminer la taille et la vitesse de gouttes provenant d’une sélection de buses de spray. Pour la partie thermique, nous avons conçu une section d’essais (évaporateur) permettant de pulvériser en spray afin d’étudier le refroidissement avec une boucle fermée diphasique.Vu la complexité du système de spray influencé par plusieurs paramètres et phénomènes physiques, nous avons isolé le phénomène d’ébullition nucléée dans une configuration en ébullition nucléée avec un élément chauffant identique à celui employé avec le refroidissement par spray. Pour améliorer les échanges thermiques, 6 surfaces avec différentes structurations (macroscopiques, microscopiques et hybrides) ont été sélectionnées. Les résultats de tests avec ces surfaces ont été comparés avec une surface lisse tant pour le refroidissement par spray que pour le refroidissement en vase.D’une part, avec un refroidissement par spray, les surfaces macrostructurées nous ont permis de dissiper des puissances thermiques de l’ordre de 140 W/cm2 avec d’importants coefficients de transfert thermique. D’autre part, avec un système de refroidissement par immersion, une des surfaces hybrides a montré être la plus performante.Les résultats reportés dans cette thèse ont permis d’approfondir la compréhension des mécanismes de transfert de chaleur en refroidissement par spray. De même, ils ouvrent la voie à l’étude des améliorations et optimisations du système permettant de l’employer en systèmes embarqués. / This dissertation concerns the study of two-phase flow cooling of electronic components in embedded systems. From a literature review, Spray Cooling was selected as a promising technique for dissipating heat fluxes above 100 W/cm2. A hydraulic study, using water and HFE7100 as coolants, has validate models for determining the size and speed of drops from a selection of spray nozzles. Regarding the thermal study, we have designed a test section (evaporator) to study cooling in a two-phase closed loop system.Given the complexity of Spray Cooling systems, which are influenced by several parameters and involve several physical phenomena, the nucleate boiling phenomenon has been isolated in a Pool Boling system with an identical heating element as Spray Cooling experiment. To improve heat exchange, 6 surfaces with different structures (macroscopic, microscopic and hybrid) were selected. The boiling test results with these surfaces have been compared with a smooth surface for both Spray Cooling and Pool Boiling.On one hand, in Spray Cooling tests, the macrostructured surfaces dissipated heat flux up to 140 W/cm2 with significant heat transfer coefficients. On the other hand, in the Pool Boling system, one of the hybrid surfaces has shown to be the most efficient.The results reported in this dissertation contributes on the understanding of the boiling mechanisms of heat transfer in Spray Cooling. Likewise, they open the way to the study of improvements and optimizations of the system for its use in embedded systems.

Master of Science / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / Bruce R. Babin / A significant body of literature exists for experiments in spray cooling applications that utilize one-dimensional heat transfer through a metal ingot to determine the average surface heat flux. Due to inherent non-uniformities in spray distributions, measurements that account for the two-dimensional effects are required. In this study, an infrared (IR) camera was used to capture the two-dimensional temperature distribution formed when spraying an electrically heated NiChrome surface with three different fluids. IR thermography captured the thermal response of the un-sprayed side of a 0.005-inch (0.125mm) think strip of NiChrome exposed to spray from a 90° full-cone nozzle at low mass fluxes (0.025 – 0.045 lb/ft[superscript]2-s / 0.122 – 0.220 kg/m[superscript]2-s) from a distance of approximately 5 to 11 inches (13 to 28cm). Results were measured for surface average temperatures ranging from 150 to 600°F (65 – 315°C).

"Spray cooling has been important to control die temperature in forging processes for years. One area that has had little research is how thermal stresses in a metal are related to flow characteristics of the spray. Wyman-Gordon Corporation at its North Grafton MA facility uses spray cooling to cool their die after a forging process. The current system used is found to cause cracking along the surface of the impression in the die. The purpose of this project is to compare the nozzle system used by Wyman-Gordon to selected commercially available spray nozzles, and determine if there is a better spray cooling system than the one currently used. First the flow parameters, of Sauter mean diameter, particle velocity, and volumetric spray flux were experimentally found using a laser PDA system for four water driven nozzles, including the Wyman-Gordon nozzle, and one air-atomizing nozzle. The water atomizing nozzles were tested using pressures from 30 psi to 150 psi. For the air-atomizing nozzle, the water pressure was set at 60 psi and the air pressure was varied from 30 to 150 psi. Three nozzles were chosen, the Wyman-Gordon nozzle, the smaller orifice water atomizing nozzle, the air-atomizing nozzle, and an air stream, to conduct an inverse heat conduction experiment. Using the temperature gradients created by the cooling effects of each nozzle, the heat flux and induced thermal stresses were determined. The results showed the Wyman-Gordon nozzle was causing higher thermal stresses than the air/water and water nozzles. However, the air-atomizing nozzle and air stream, due to the high temperatures that the dies are subjected to, did not cool the die quick enough to be practical. The smaller orifice water atomizing nozzle proved to be the nozzle that would cool the surface of the dies within a practical time, and induce allowable thermal stresses, sufficiently enough below the yield strength of the die material. These results, although collected specifically to study the cooling of dies at Wyman-Gordon, could be generalized to include the cooling of any test piece with a high surface temperature. "

The purpose of this investigation is to analyze the flow pattern of cooling fluids in the 3D "twister-effect" mixing chamber and to approximate the free surface behaviors exiting the 2D spray nozzle. The cone angle and free surface height located at the end of the free surface are two significant factors to determine the spraying area on a heated plane. This process is a reasonable representation of many industrial cooling application. The whole system consists of 4 inlet tubes connected to the top of the mixing chamber, and the spray nozzle is located under the chamber. Four different refrigerants, like FC-72, FC-77, FC-87 and methanol were used for the turbulent flow simulations. According to different fluid properties, the cone angle, free surface, pressure drop and Reynolds number can be investigated at different flow rates. First, at a certain volumetric flow rates, the velocities in x, y, z directions were found on the positive x-axis (0 degree), y-axis (90 degrees), negative x-axis (180 degrees) and y-axis (270 degrees) at 8.0 x 10-4m below the top of chamber. After the transformations, the interpolated and averaged radial, circumferential and axial velocities were used in the 2D nozzle simulations. Finally, the cone angle, the radial locations of the free surface and the pressure drop were obtained in each scenario. As the results, higher volumetric flow rate produced higher free surface height and cone angle. Also, FC-87 created the highest free surface height and cone angle among all four working fluids in both volumetric flow rates. It means that FC-87 can produce the largest spraying area on the heated surface. Fluctuation, spinning and eddy circulation can be found in the velocity plot because of the turbulent flow syndromes. When comparing two different nozzle designs, it was found that the nozzle without mixing chamber gave a larger cone angle and free surface height. Alternatively, the design in this investigation produced a relatively narrow jet concentrated to the stagnation zone.

A conical nozzle with two separate inlets within its top plate is analyzed. One of the inlets is in the center of the top plate, which is free to rotate, whereas the other inlet is positioned away from the center. The fluid entering through the outer inlet slot causes the top plate of the nozzle to spin. Several fluids including FC-77, FC-72, FC-87, and Methanol running at different flow rates were investigated to observe the effect that their particular properties have on the geometry of the fluid's free surface exiting the nozzle. Another variation performed was the geometry of the nozzle. The outer inlet slot was positioned at various radial distances along the top plate. For this nozzle, the top plate remained stationary and swirling was introduced to the fluid at the inlets. It was observed that the faster flow rates caused an increase in the free surface height and cone angle. For the various radial locations of the outer inlet slot, it was noted that a position at approximately 75% of the nozzle radius produced the largest free surface height. The largest cone angle was produced when the outer inlet slot was positioned at the edge of the nozzle top plate. Another factor that increased the radial height and cone angle of the free surface was the working fluid used in the study. A larger Reynolds number produced a larger cone angle and larger free surface height (while a smaller Reynolds number produced a less significant cone angle and free surface height).