No / The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether or not spreading depression (CSD) propagates symmetrically along the anteroposterior axis of the cortex of mice, and to determine where CSD should be elicited to achieve a uniform exposure of the cortex to this phenomenon. Experiments were performed in halothane-anesthetized mice, with three different locations aligned 1.5 mm from the midline used for either KCl elicitation of CSD or the recording of its propagation. Our results demonstrated that, at least in the mouse cortex, CSD propagated much more effectively from posterior to anterior regions than in the opposite direction. This feature was due to a different efficacy of propagation in the two opposite directions, and not to a reduced susceptibility of occipital regions to CSD elicitation. Heterogeneous CSD propagation constitutes a potential pitfall for neurochemical studies of post-CSD changes in mice, as brain tissue samples collected for this purpose should be uniformly exposed to CSD. Occipital sites for CSD induction are clearly optimal for this purpose. If CSD propagation is confirmed to be more effective from posterior to anterior regions in other species, this may be relevant to the pathophysiology of classical migraine because the most frequent aura symptoms (i.e., visual disturbances) originate in the occipital cortex.

No / Two different theories of migraine aura exist: In the vascular theory of Wolff, intracerebral vasoconstriction causes migraine aura via energy deficiency, whereas in the neuronal theory of Leão and Morison, spreading depression (SD) initiates the aura. Recently, it has been shown that the cerebrovascular constrictor endothelin-1 (ET-1) elicits SD when applied to the cortical surface, a finding that could provide a bridge between the vascular and the neuronal theories of migraine aura. Several arguments support the notion that ET-1¿induced SD results from local vasoconstriction, but definite proof is missing. If ET-1 induces SD via vasoconstriction/ischemia, then neuronal damage is likely to occur, contrasting with the fact that SD in the otherwise normal cortex is not associated with any lesion. To test this hypothesis, we have performed a comprehensive histologic study of the effects of ET-1 when applied topically to the cerebral cortex of halothane-anesthetized rats. Our assessment included histologic stainings and immunohistochemistry for glial fibrillary acidic protein, heat shock protein 70, and transferase dUTP nick-end labeling assay. During ET-1 application, we recorded (i) subarachnoid direct current (DC) electroencephalogram, (ii) local cerebral blood flow by laser-Doppler flowmetry, and (iii) changes of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin by spectroscopy. At an ET-1 concentration of 1 µM, at which only 6 of 12 animals generated SD, a microarea with selective neuronal death was found only in those animals demonstrating SD. In another five selected animals, which had not shown SD in response to ET-1, SD was triggered at a second cranial window by KCl and propagated from there to the window exposed to ET-1. This treatment also resulted in a microarea of neuronal damage. In contrast, SD invading from outside did not induce neuronal damage in the absence of ET-1 (n = 4) or in the presence of ET-1 if ET-1 was coapplied with BQ-123, an ETA receptor antagonist (n = 4). In conclusion, SD in presence of ET-1 induced a microarea of selective neuronal necrosis no matter where the SD originated. This effect of ET-1 appears to be mediated by the ETA receptor.

Spreading depression (SD) is a slow propagating wave of depolarization that can spread throughout the cortex in the event of brain injury or any general energy failure of the brain. Massive cellular depolarization causes enormous ionic and water shifts and silences synaptic transmission in the affected tissue. Large amounts of energy are required to restore ionic gradients and are not always met. When these energetic demands are not met, brain tissue damage can occur. The exact mechanism behind initiation and propagation of SD are unknown, but a general model is known. It may be possible to prevent or delay the onset of SD using non-invasive electromagnetic techniques. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), electrical stimulation (ES), and transcranial direct coupled stimulation (tDCS) could be used to decrease neuronal excitability in different ways. In theory, any technique that can reduce cortical excitability could suppress SD initiating or propagating.

No description available.

Die kortikale spreading depression (SD), wie sie von Leão 1944 zuerst beschrieben wurde, ist ein elektrophysiologisches Phänomen, das in der Pathophysiologie der Aurasymptomatik einer Mi-gräneattacke und Ischämie-induzierter Zellschäden diskutiert wird. Während der akuten fokalen zerebralen Ischämie treten eine Reihe von Ereignissen wie eine massive Entzündungsreaktion und die allmähliche Einbeziehung einer zunächst viablen ischämischen Randzone - der Penum-bra - in das infarzierte Hirngewebe auf. Da an diesen Ereignissen SD-ähnliche Depolarisationen kausal beteiligt sind, ist die pharmakologische Verringerung von SD-Episoden bzw. eine Ver-kleinerung ihrer Amplitude und Dauer unter in vitro als auch tierexperimentellen in vivo Bedin-gungen eine mögliche neuroprotektive Strategie. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein in vitro Modell beschrieben, das am Hirnschnittpräparat des Neokortex der adulten Ratte eine reproduzierbare Auslösung von SD-Wellen unter normoxi-schen Bedingungen gestattet. Anhand von charakteristischen elektrophysiologischen Parametern einer SD wie Amplitude, Dauer und Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit wurden die gute Überein-stimmungen dieses in vitro Modells mit in vivo Modellen gezeigt. Obwohl SD Wellen am nicht-ischämischen Kortex keine morphologischen Schäden verursachen, zeigte sich in den hier vorge-stellten Experimenten eine funktionelle Unterdrückung der GABAergen hemmenden Mechanis-men des Neokortex nach repetitiven SDs auch bei ausreichender Energie- und Sauerstoffversor-gung. Die hier diskutierten Ergebnisse demonstrierten, daß unter in vitro Bedingungen der AMPA-Glutamatrezeptor für die Auslösung und Ausbreitung einer SD eine untergeordnete Rolle spielt. Demgegenüber erwies sich die NMDA-Rezeptoraktivierung als herausragend für eine SD, da die Blockade dieses Rezeptors mit dem nicht-kompetitiven Antagonisten Ketamin die SD-Amplitude und SD-Dauer signifikant verringerte. Die Anwendung der selektiven 5-HT1A-Agonisten 8-OH-DPAT und BAY x 3702 erwies sich als eine neue Möglichkeit, die Zeitdauer einer SD zu verringern. Die aufgezeigte SD-induzierte neuronale Hyperexzitabilität kann unter normoxischen Bedingun-gen zelluläre Dysfunktionen verursachen und auch an einer Generierung der Aura eines Migrä-neanfalls beteiligt sein. Unter hypoxisch-ischämischen Bedingungen könnte eine SD-induzierte Dysfunktion GABAerger Kontrollmechanismen die Ausweitung ischämischer Zellschäden be-wirken. Die Hoffnungen auf eine effektive Schlaganfalltherapie haben sich mit den bisherigen NMDA-Antagonisten trotz ihrer hier bestätigten guten in vitro Wirksamkeit aufgrund der Interferenz mit physiologischen Glutamatfunktionen im Kortex nicht erfüllt. Die hier gezeigte konzentrationsab-hängige Verkürzung der SD-Dauer durch die Aktivierung des 5-HT1A-Serotoninrezeptors unter in vitro Bedingungen kann bei der bekannten hohen 5-HT1A-Rezeptor-mRNA-dichte an beson-ders ischämievulnerablen Neuronen einen neuen neuroprotektiven Ansatz auch beim Menschen darstellen. Weitere Untersuchungen müssen zeigen, ob die hier beschriebene enge Verflechtung des serotonergen Systems mit der glutamatergen Neurotransmission eventuell auch zu uner-wünschte Wirkungen unter in vivo Bedingungen führt. / Repetitive cortical spreading depression (SD) and SD-like events, associated with a massive de-polarization of neuronal and glial cells, is thought to play a key role in the induction of neuronal damage in the peri-infarct zone following experimental focal cerebral ischemia. In addition, ex-perimental and clinical data suggest that SD is the underlying mechanism of neurological distur-bances during migraine auras as well. However, detailed analyses on the consequences of repeti-tive SDs on cortical function and involved receptors are lacking. Using an in vitro rat model of SD I investigated in this thesis the electrophysiological properties of repetitive potassium chloride (KCl)-induced SDs, their influence on synaptic neurotransmis-sion and the effects of ionotropic glutamate antagonists and 5-HT1A agonists in neocortical slices obtained from adult rats. Whereas repetitive SDs revealed only non-significant variations in du-ration, amplitude and integral when elicited at intervals of 30 min, paired-pulse inhibition of ex-tracellularly recorded field potential responses was significantly affected by repetitive SD even under normoxic conditions. Compared to the control recordings, each SD episode caused a sig-nificant decrease in the efficacy of intracortical GABAergic inhibition by approximately 10%. Since excitatory synaptic transmission was unaffected, these data indicate that repetitive SDs cause a selective suppression of GABAergic function even in the non-ischemic brain. None of the compounds tested prevented the SD-induced cortical disinhibition. However, the SD-associated negative shift in the extracellular DC potential was reduced by ketamine, a selective N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA-) receptor antagonist. Ketamine significantly (p < 0.01) re-duced the amplitude of the first SD peak and blocked the second SD peak. Ketamine also de-creased the SD duration at half maximal amplitude (p < 0.05). NBQX, a selective a-amino-3- hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonist did not affect the SD-accompanied cortical depolarization, whereas selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)1A receptor agonists 8-OH-DPAT and BAY x 3702 shortened concentration-dependently the duration of the SD up to 50 %. Nevertheless, both 5-HT1A receptor agonists caused a strong disinhibition of neu-ronal function with a tendency towards paired-pulse facilitation as well. Thus, repetitive SD and SD-like events may induce neuronal hyperexcitability due to a selective suppression of intrinsic inhibitory GABAergic function. Under normoxic conditions, SD-induced disinhibition may be involved in the generation and maintenance of migraine or associated neurological disturbances. Under hypoxic-ischemic conditions, neuronal hyperexcitability may contribute to the gradual expansion of the ischemic core and the metabolic deterioration of the penumbral tissue after SD episodes. This underlines the deleterious effect of SD to the outcome of focal cerebral ischemia. Although the precise mecha-nisms of SD generation and propagation remains far from established, the present pharmacologi-cal profile of KCl-induced SD in vitro links the induction and propagation of SD in rat neocorti-cal slices mainly to a local increase of [K + ] e and a subsequent activation of NMDA- receptors. This corroborates the neuroprotective effect of a NMDA- receptor blockade observed in various in vitro and in vivo models. However, as it has been demonstrated in clinical trials, NMDA- re-ceptor antagonists in use today cause psychomimetic and cardiovascular side effects in humans and are therefore currently of low clinical benefit. The activation of 5-HT1A receptors by selective agonists represents a new pharmacological strategy in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke, since shortened SD waves may represent a less energy-consuming process under conditions of limited energy supply and are probably associated with an efflux of excitatory neurotransmitters to a lesser extent. The potential clinical benefit of 5-HT 1A receptor agonists remains to be investi-gated in clinical trials, since systemic administration of these compounds after the onset of acute focal cerebral ischemia might interfere with normal functions of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the intact, non-ischemic brain.

Die Kopplung zwischen neuronaler Aktivität und cerebralem Blutfluss ist ein fundamentaler Prozess, der alle cerebralen Funktionen begleitet. Das Thema meiner Habilitation ist die Entdeckung einer neuen Ischämievariante, bei der neuronale Aktivierung eine cerebrale Ischämie auslöst, indem sich die Kopplung zwischen neuronaler Aktivierung und cerebralem Blutfluss umkehrt. Diese Umkehrung wird durch Produkte roter Blutkörperchen im Subarachnoidalraum hervorgerufen. Die eigentümlichste Eigenschaft dieser Ischämievariante ist ihre Wanderung im cerebralen Cortex gemeinsam mit der Welle neuronaler Aktivierung. Deshalb habe ich das Phänomen cortical spreading ischaemia genannt. Das vorgestellte tierexperimentelle Modell könnte für die verzögerten ischämischen neurologischen Defizite nach Subarachnoidalblutung Implikationen besitzen. Die Verbindung mit diesem klinischen Syndrom basiert auf: (a) der Induktion der cortical spreading ischaemia durch Produkte roter Blutkörperchen im Subarachnoidalraum, (b) der Übereinstimmung im Läsionsmuster mit corticalen ischämischen Infarkten, und (c) den therapeutischen Effekten von Nimodipin und mässiger hypervolämischer Hämodilution im klinischen Syndrom und im Tiermodell. Mit Hilfe dieses Modells ist es zum ersten Mal gelungen, experimentell die Hypothese zu bestätigen, dass Produkte roter Blutkörperchen eine cerebrale Ischämie induzieren können. Ich hoffe, dass das Modell dazu beitragen wird, neue Strategien bei der Behandlung von Patienten mit Subarachnoidalblutung zu entwickeln. / The coupling between neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow is a fundamental process, which underpins all cerebral functions. The topic of my Habilitation is the discovery of a new variant of ischaemia in which neuronal activation triggers a cerebral ischaemic event through the inversion of the coupling between neuronal activation and cerebral blood flow. This inversion occurs when red blood cell products are present in the subarachnoid space. The most distinct feature of this variant of ischaemia is its propagation in the cerebral cortex together with the wave of neuronal activation. Therefore, I named the phenomenon cortical spreading ischaemia . The presented animal model may have implications for the delayed ischaemic neurological deficits after subarachnoid haemorrhage. The link with this clinical syndrome has been based: (a) on the induction of cortical spreading ischaemia by red blood cell products in the subarachnoid space, (b) the correspondence between the characteristic patterns of the cortical ischaemic lesions, and (c) the therapeutic effects of nimodipine and moderate hypervolaemic haemodilution in clinical syndrome and animal model. With the aid of this model, it was possible to experimentally confirm the hypothesis that red blood cell products can induce cerebral ischaemia. I hope that the model will contribute to develop new strategies for the treatment of patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage.

The research presented within this dissertation focused on two major areas of research: monitoring the response to single-dose radiotherapy in a RIF-1 tumor model and the role of cortical spreading depression in the evolution of ischemic stroke. For the research in the first half of this dissertation, quantitative MRI was performed to investigate the spatial correlation between the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), spin-spin relaxation times (T2), and proton density (M0) in murine radiation-induced fibrosarcoma (RIF-1) tumors following single-dose (1000cGy) radiotherapy using the k-means (KM) algorithm. An in-depth comparison between KM-derived volume estimates and conventional histology via the hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining procedure (for identification of viable tumor versus necrosis), as well as via hypoxic-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) immunohistochemistry (for identification of regions of hypoxia versus well-oxygenated tissue) was performed. The results of this study demonstrated that multispectral (MS) analysis provides: (1) an improved tissue segmentation method over results obtained from conventional single-parameter approaches, (2) subdivision based on the degree of necrosis, as well as delineation between well-oxygenated and hypoxic viable tissue, (3) good correlation with both H&E staining and HIF-1alpha immunohistochemistry, and (4) a method for monitoring the range of tissue viability as a function of time post-treatment, with the potential for predicting therapeutic efficacy. For the research in the second half of this dissertation, manganese-enhanced MRI (MEMRI) was employed for the characterization of both experimental and pathological cortical spreading depression (CSD). In order to determine the utility of manganese ions (Mn2+) as a marker for spreading depression (SD), experimental SD was elicited by chemical stimulation (KCl application to exposed rat cortex) and compared with control conditions. This study demonstrated that (1) Mn2+ is a more accurate marker for SD than DWI or T2* methods, (2) cortical restriction of MEMRI enhancement supports the contention that apical dendrites are necessary for SD propagation. (3) subcortical enhancement was a result of cortical-subcortical neuronal connectivity. Based on these results, preliminary experiments involving the study of SD in ischemia using Mn2+ were performed. Initial results indicate: (1) MEMRI may provide a method for estimating the likelihood of progression to infarction at acute timepoints post onset of stroke. These studies provide a foundation for further investigation into the role of SD in stroke, and the application of Mn2+ towards the design of therapeutic strategies targeting SD inhibition.

No description available.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) allows for the noninvasive modulation of cortical activity. In this study, the effects of cathodal and anodal TDCS treatment on baseline activity in the motor cortex of rats were investigated via translaminar electroencephalogram (EEG) recording and power spectral density analysis. Treatment with low intensity anodal TDCS for five minutes was found to increase delta and theta frequency cortical activity during and for up to five minutes following treatment. This study also assessed the interaction of TDCS with the phenomenon of cortical spreading depression (CoSD), which has been implicated in numerous disease states, including migraine and stroke. TDCS treatment was given concurrently with induction of CoSD via administration of potassium chloride to the surface of the dura. The presence of the spreading depression event, a characteristic low frequency wave observed to travel outwards from the point of CoSD induction and downwards through the cortex, was used as a proxy measure for the occurrence of CoSD. It was observed that animals treated with cathodal TDCS exhibited fewer spreading depression events relative to those treated with anodal TDCS or those receiving sham treatment. In this study, animals were segregated into groups that exhibited stimulus artifact during TDCS treatment and those that did not. Stimulus artifact was defined as a characteristic alpha and/or beta frequency activity spike lasting throughout and not longer than the period of stimulation. Those animals receiving TDCS without exhibiting stimulus artifact were considered for the purposes of this study to not have received proper TDCS treatment, and acted as a sham treatment group. Because salient differences emerged between the stimulus artifact positive and stimulus artifact negative groups, this study suggests that the presence of stimulus artifact could be used as a proxy measure for successful TDCS dosage.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2017-04-27T14:10:38Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Tese_Dout_Lima_DSCL_2016.pdf: 2341451 bytes, checksum: e4310955dbc4f0c3af7730606a09c7f3 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-27T14:10:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Tese_Dout_Lima_DSCL_2016.pdf: 2341451 bytes, checksum: e4310955dbc4f0c3af7730606a09c7f3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-07-29 / O aminoácido glutamina (Gln) é precursor dos neurotransmissores cerebrais glutamato e GABA. O aumento de sua disponibilidade pode modular a excitabilidade cerebral. O objetivo deste trabalho foi descrever os efeitos do tratamento com diferentes doses de Gln, durante o desenvolvimento cerebral, sobre o comportamento de ansiedade, a depressão alastrante cortical (DAC) e a ativação da microglia no córtex de ratos recém-desmamados (D) e adultos (A). Os animais foram amamentados em ninhadas com 9 (L9; lactação normal) e com 15 filhotes (L15; lactação desfavorável). Do 7º ao 27º dia de vida pós-natal (P7-P27), os filhotes machos receberam por gavagem 250, 500 ou 750 mg/kg/dia de Gln (grupos Gln250, Gln500 e Gln750, respectivamente). Os grupos controles foram formados por animais que receberam o veículo (água destilada) no qual a Gln foi dissolvida por gavagem e por animais que não receberam gavagem (grupo ingênuo). Aos P28-P30 (D) e P88-P90 (A), os animais foram submetidos aos testes para comportamentos sugestivos de ansiedade no labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE) e no campo aberto. Dos P30-35 (D) ou P90-120 (A), registrou-se a DAC, obtendo-se dados de sua velocidade de propagação, duração e amplitude. Em seguida, os cérebros de alguns animais foram processados para imunomarcação com anticorpos anti-Iba1, específicos para microglia. No grupo D, os ratos tratados com Gln apresentaram um comportamento menos ansioso, tanto no LCE quanto no campo aberto. Este efeito ansiolítico da Gln foi mais evidente nos animais da condição L15. Na idade adulta (A), os grupos Gln500 e Gln750 da condição L15 percorreram uma maior distância e apresentaram menor tempo de imobilidade no LCE. Em relação à DAC, os animais da condição L15 apresentaram maior velocidade de propagação do que os correspondentes L9. Com exceção do grupo Gln250 da condição L15 na idade adulta, todos os grupos tratados com Gln apresentaram maior velocidade de propagação quando comparados aos respectivos controles. Além disso, esse efeito acelerador foi dependente da dose, uma vez que os grupos Gln500 e Gln750 apresentaram maiores velocidades de propagação do que os correspondentes Gln250. Quanto à reação da microglia, os animais tratados com Gln apresentaram maior imunorreatividade, tanto no córtex parietal quanto no hipocampo dos grupos D e A. Nos animais A da condição L9, a imunorreatividade da microglia e o percentual de área marcada foram maiores no grupo Gln500 do que no grupo Gln250. A partir desses resultados, sugere-se que o tratamento com Gln durante o período neonatal module a excitabilidade cerebral, resultando nas alterações eletrofisiológicas, comportamentais e imunohistoquímicas descritas neste estudo. Essas alterações persistem até a idade adulta e são dependentes da dose e da condição nutricional do animal. / The amino acid glutamine (Gln) is precursor of the brain neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA. Therefore, the increase of its availability can modulate brain excitability. The aim of this study was to describe the effects of treatment with different doses of Gln during brain development on anxiety-like behavior, cortical spreading depression (CSD) and microglial reaction in the cortex of developing (D) and adults (A) rats. Wistar rats were suckled in litters with 9 (L9; normal condition) or 15 (L15; unfavorable condition) pups. From 7th to 27th postnatal day (P7-P27), male rats received Gln by gavage at the doses of 250 mg/kg/day or 500 mg/kg/day or 750 mg/kg/day (respectively Gln250, Gln500 and Gln750 groups). The control groups were formed by animals that received vehicle which Gln was dissolved (distilled water) and animals that were not submitted to the gavage procedure (naive group). At P28-P30 (D) and P88-P90 (A), animals were tested in elevated plus maze (EPM) and open field. At P30-35 (D) and P90-120 (A), we recorded the CSD, obtaining data from its velocity of propagation, duration and amplitude. The brains of some animals were processed for microglial immunolabeling with anti-Iba-1 antibodies to analyze cortical microglia. In the D group, Gln treated rats showed less anxious behavior, both in EPM and open field. This anxiolytic effect of Gln was more evident in L15 condition. In adult rats (A), Gln500 and Gln750 groups of L15 condition traveled a greater distance and displayed shorter immobility time in the LCE when compared to controls. Regarding CSD, L15 animals presented with higher propagation velocity than the corresponding L9. Except for the Gln250 group of L15 condition in adulthood, all groups treated with Gln showed higher CSD velocity when compared to their respective controls. Moreover, the accelerating effect was dose dependent, since Gln500 and Gln750 groups displayed higher CSD velocity than the corresponding Gln250. Gln treated groups had greater immunoreactivity in both the parietal cortex and hippocampus. In adult rats of L9 condition, Gln500 group had greater immunoreactivity and higher percentage of labeled area when compared Gln250 group. Our findings suggest that neonatal treatment with Gln modulates brain excitability, resulting in the electrophysiological, behavioral and microglial alterations here described. These alterations persist into adulthood and are modulated by dose and lactation conditions.