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L’étude des attitudes linguistiques, entreprise par la sociolinguistique et la psychologie sociale, a permis de confirmer que toutes les variétés linguistiques ne reçoivent pas le même traitement. La langue standard, étant en règle générale la langue du groupe de prestige, bénéficie d’une reconnaissance sociale en comparaison avec les variétés non-standards ou minoritaires, qui, au contraire, suscitent généralement des attitudes plus négatives. Dans ce mémoire, nous analysons les attitudes linguistiques des mexicains à l’égard du slang mexicain. La méthodologie du projet comporte deux parties principales. Dans un premier temps, des conversations spontanées et naturelles entre locuteurs de slang sont enregistrées. Des fragments de ces enregistrements sont ensuite écoutés par un groupe de sujets qui, simultanément, remplit un questionnaire évaluant leurs attitudes linguistiques dirigées envers l’usage du slang ainsi qu’envers les individus qui le parle. L’analyse statistique des résultats permet de faire quelques constats : Il y a une différence très significative entre la façon dont les dimensions de solidarité et de prestige sont jugées, les pointages donnés aux aspects tels que l’intelligence et le succès des locuteurs de slang s’avérant beaucoup plus bas que ceux accordés aux aspects reliés à leur personnalité, comme la bonté et la générosité. Aussi, les variables de l’âge et du sexe ont une influence sur les attitudes linguistiques : les femmes ainsi que la génération plus âgée s’avèrent plus sévères dans leur évaluation du slang. Ce mémoire se divise en cinq chapitres. Les deux premiers explorent les concepts théoriques sur lesquels se basent le projet, soit les attitudes linguistiques et le slang comme phénomène linguistique et social. Les trois chapitres suivants se consacrent au projet en soit : la méthodologie, l’analyse des résultats et l’interprétation de ceux-ci. / The study of language attitudes via sociolinguistics and social psychology has confirmed the notion that all varieties of language are treated differently. As a general rule, the standard language is the language of the prestigious group and is held at a high social esteem whereas non-standard or minority language varieties are, in general, judged negatively. This thesis analyzes the language attitudes of Mexicans towards Mexican slang. The project methodology consists in two main phases. Firstly, spontaneous and natural conversations are recorded. Following this, a group of individuals listen to fragments of these conversations while simultaneously filling out a questionnaire that evaluate their language attitudes towards the use of slang as well as towards the slang speakers. The statistical analysis of the results lead to the observation of several patterns: There is a very significant difference in the way solidarity aspects and prestige aspects are judged. The points given to aspects such as intelligence and success for speakers of slang are significantly lower than the points given to personality aspects such as generosity and kindness. Age and gender also have influence on language attitudes: women and the elderly are more severe in their judgment and evaluation of slang. This thesis is divided into five chapters. The first two explore the theoretical concepts upon which the work is based, including language attitudes and slang as a linguistic and social phenomenon. The following three chapters are dedicated to the project itself: the methodology, the analysis of the results and their interpretation.

Language and gender is one of the most intriguing and interesting areas in sociolinguistic study. It investigates how men and women (or boys and girls) use language differently in social contexts. Extensive study and research has been carried out in this field, particularly in regard to the English language. Eminent linguists such as Ronald Wardhaugh, David Crystal, Ralph Fasold, and Deborah Tannen have studied varying male-female use of the English language. They have also attempted comparison with other languages and cultures. Wardhaugh, for instance, has studied male-female use of language in English, American-Indian languages (such as Gros Ventre), Asian and Oriental languages (Yukaghir, Japanese) among others, and his findings have become the subject of several of his published works. In their investigations they have found that almost invariably, the way men use language shows them to be socially dominant over women. This persists even in such cases as in the Malagasy language spoken in Madagascar, where men display linguistic characteristics more popularly associated with women and vice versa (Wardhaugh). This paper seeks to determine whether men use language to dominate women among the Kikuyu ethnic group of Kenya, East Africa, to which I belong. Areas such as terms used to refer to men and women, taboo language and language use in marital situations are examined, among others. I also attempt to find out what influence this has had on English spoken in Kenya.

Language contact is a universal phenomenon found in bilingual or multilingual societies. It is the basic and distinct quality of every culture. Language is the means by which people communicate, express their points of views, say what their feelings are and attach names to objects. As multicultural as South Africa is, it is almost impossible for one not to have an encounter with other people’s languages. This study therefore aims at investigating the influence of IsiNdebele on Sepedi learners at the primary schools around the Dennilton region in the Limpopo Province. Much has been said about language contact and its influence in urban areas but no study has yet been conducted in rural areas focusing on Sepedi and IsiNdebele speakers. In their works, researchers such as Malimabe (1990:12), Pettman (1993:3), Calteaux (1996:187) point out that urbanization has brought diverse cultures together in the townships and workplaces. To curb their language differences, lingua franca like Tsotsitaal, Iscamtho, Fanagalo and others inevitably emerged. The same happened in the Limpopo Province when the AmaNdebele came to the farms and mines seeking employment at the Marble Hall and Groblersdal areas, and some did find a place of refuge in these areas. As Pettman (1993:3) notes, various races, using different languages cannot occupy the same territory and live in daily contact without being mutually affected; each will acquire something from and in turn give something to the other. In Chapter One, the Constitutional requirement as well as the progress made in the teaching and learning of isiNdebele at the primary schools in the Dennilton region is explored. The findings in Chapter Two reveal that Amandebele children still speak isiNdebele at home but Sepedi at school. At some schools, the learners who take Sepedi first language and those who take isiNdebele first language are accommodated in one class and only separate during their first language instruction periods. This is done because of the shortage of classes but will obviously promote cross language influence, such as code-switching and code-mixing. The findings reveal that language influence is also perpetuated by multilingual families and educators. The isiNdebele speaking learners and teachers bring isiNdebele to the learning environment; hence the Sepedi speaking learners in these schools experience difficulties adjusting to the use of appropriate, standard Sepedi when they speak or write essays. The isiNdebele phonological sounds as in [z] mzala for Sepedi [ts] motswala ’cousin’, [dl] dlala for Sepedi [b] bapala ‘play’, [v] vula for Sepedi [β] bula etc. are observed to be infiltrating the Sepedi sound system and are outlined in Chapter Three. After examining the learners’ written work in Chapter Four, it is observed that there is the adaptation of phonemes on the morphological, semantic and the syntactical disciplines from isiNdebele into Sepedi lexical stock. Chapter Five recapitulates the whole study. Recommendations by the language teachers and the researcher to the Limpopo Education Department, the parents and all stakeholders involved in the teaching and learning of languages are stated in this concluding chapter. AFRIKAANS : Taalkontak is ’n universele fenomeen in tweetalige of veeltalige gemeenskappe. Dit is die basiese en onderskeidende kwaliteit van enige kultuur. Taal is die instrument waarmee mense kommunikeer, hul menings lug, hul gevoelens uitdruk en objekte benoem. Dit is byna onmoontlik om in ’n multikulturele Suid-Afrikaanse konteks nie kontak te hê met ande tale nie. Dié studie stel ondersoek in na die invloed van IsiNdebele op Sepedi leerders in laerskole rondom die Dennilton area in die Limpopo provinsie. Baie is al gesê oor taalkontak en die invloed daarvan in stedelike areas, maar geen studie is al onderneem in plattelandse gebiede wat fokus op Sepedi en IsiNdebele sprekers nie. In hul ondersoeke het navorsers soos Malimabe (1990:12), Pettman (1993:3), Calteaux (1996:187) daarop gewys dat verstedeliking diverse kulture saamgebring het in informele nedersettings en werkplekke. Om taalverskille te oorkom, het lingua francas soos Tsotsitaal, Iscamtho, Fanagalo en ander ontwikkel. Dieselfde het in die Limpopo provinsie gebeur toe die AmaNdebele na plase en myne in die Marble Hall en Groblersdal areas gekom het om werk te soek. Sommige het ’n tuiste in hierdie areas gevind. Pettman (1993:3) noem dat verskillende rasse wat verskillende tale gebruik nie dieselfde gebied kan bewoon sonder om ondeling beïnvloed te word nie; elk sal iets van die ander nodig hê en beurtelings iets aan die ander gee. In hoofstuk 1 word die konstitusionele vereiste en die vordering wat gemaak is met die onderrig en en leer van isiNdebele in laerskole in die Dennilton area ondersoek. Die bevindinge in hoofstuk 2 wys daarop dat Amandebele kinders steeds isiNdebele tuis gebruik, maar Sepedi in die skoolopset. By sommige skole word leerders wat Sepedi en isiNdebele onderskeidelik as ’n eerste taal neem in een klas geakkommodeer en word hul slegs geskei gedurende eerste taalonderrigperiodes. Dié word gedoen weens ’n tekort aan klasse, maar sal vanselfsprekend kruistaal beïnvloeding bevorder soos kodewisseling en kodevermenging. Die bevindinge dui daarop dat taalbeïnvloeding ook aangewakker word deur veeltalige families en opvoeders. Die IsiNdebele leerders en opvoeders bring isiNdebele na die leeromgewing; daarom ondervind die Sepedi leerders in hierdie skole probleme met die gebruik van aanvaarbare standaard Sepedi as hul praat of opstelle skryf. Die isiNdebele fonologiese klanke soos [z] vir Sepedi, [ts] motswala, [dl] dlala vir Sepedi, [b] bapala, [v] vir Sepedi [β] bula ens. is besig om die Sepedi klanksisteem te infiltreer en word in hoofstuk 3 aangedui. Nadat die leerders se geskrewe werk in hoofstuk 4 geëksamineer is, is bevind dat ’n aanpassing van foneme op die morfologiese, semantiese en die sintaktiese dissipline van die isiNdebele na Sepedi leksikale standard plaasvind. Hoofstuk 5 neem die algehele studie in oënskou. Voorstelle deur taalonderwysers en die navorser aan die Limpopo Onderwysdepartement, die ouers en alle rolspelers betrokke by die onderrig en leer van tale word in die slothoofstuk gestel Copyright / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / African Languages / unrestricted

This study examines how four teachers of Swedish perceive the knowledge requirement that says that a student should mainly be able to follow the rules concerning standard written language, how often they teach standard language and to what extent students’ written language affect assessment. The results show that the teachers of Swedish agree that the most important aspect of a text is how it is perceived in its entirety, as well as its flow and how well a reader can understand the text. Some nonstandard expressions are allowed by the teachers, while others are not. The study also shows that the teaching of standard language depends on which school the teachers belong to. In a public school the standard language is taught in isolated situations, while the teachers in a private school do it continuously. However, all informants agree that they do it continuously to some extent when it comes to feedback on student essays. Student perception was also examined and the result shows that there is an inconsistency in how students perceive that standard language is taught. / Den här studien undersöker hur fyra svensklärare uppfattar kunskapskravet som säger att en elev i huvudsak ska kunna följa skriftspråkets normer för språkriktighet, hur ofta de arbetar med språkriktighet och i vilken mån elevers skriftspråk påverkar bedömning. Sammanfattningsvis är informanterna eniga om att det handlar om helhetsbilden, flytet och förståelsen. Vissa normbrott godkänns i elevtexter medan andra är oacceptabla. Resultatet visar att informanternas skoltillhörighet påverkar arbetet med språkriktighet. Medan de kommunalt anställda lärarna undervisar om språkriktighet vid isolerade tillfällen, sker det mer kontinuerligt av de privat anställda lärarna. Däremot finns det viss kontinuitet i språkriktighetsarbetet vad beträffar återkoppling på elevtexter. Även elevåsikter har undersökts och resultatet visar att informanterna är oeniga om hur ofta de undervisas om språkriktighet.

O presente trabalho analisa a trajetória dos sujeitos vazios e expressos na norma lingüística efetivamente utilizada pela elite paulistana, em fins do século XIX até a década de 1930, quando S. Paulo recebeu grande afluxo de imigrantes usuários de \"línguas de sujeito nulo\". Partindo de uma avaliação crítica do \"variacionismo paramétrico\", baseado em Labov e Chomsky, propomos o \"gerativismo trans-sistêmico\". Nessa perspectiva, a língua é gerada em dois níveis: no nível de origem biológica e inata, a faculdade da linguagem, após amadurecimento, dota o indivíduo de \"competência lingüística\"; no nível de natureza social, o habitus, depois de internalizado, o proverá de \"capital lingüístico\", tal qual proposto por Bourdieu. Temos, assim, um módulo gerativo que permite ao indivíduo oferecer seus produtos no mercado lingüístico altamente concentrado. A análise de corpora lingüísticos nos levou a concluir que a elite, apesar de fazer um maior uso do sujeito vazio, já incrementava o uso dos expressos, fenômeno já bem avançado no dialeto caipira. Tal comportamento é explicado por fatores estruturais internos à língua, e também expressa, do ponto de vista histórico-social, uma clara opção por uma forma lingüística que se opunha à norma dos imigrantes, tal qual previsto no habitus da elite. / This paper analyses the trajectory of empty subjects and overt subjects in the standard language of the elite of São Paulo from the late XIX century to 1930s, when that city received a large influx of immigrants, who were speakers of languages with null subject . Starting from a critic assessment of the \"parametric variacionism\", based on Labov and Chomsky, we propose the \"trans-systemic generativism\". From this perspective, language is generated in two levels: in the biological and innate level, the language faculty, after matured, endows the individual with \"linguistic competence\"; in the social level, the habitus, after internalized, provides the individual with \"linguistic capital\", as proposed by Bourdieu. Therefore we believe that there is a generative module that allows individuals to offer their products in the highly concentrated linguistic market. The analysis of the linguistic corpora led us to conclude that the elite, despite making more use of empty subject, was already boosting the use of overt subjects, a phenomenon well advanced in the caipira dialect. This behavior is explained by structural factors internal to language, and also expressed, from the social-historical standpoint, a clear choice of a linguistic form as opposed to the standard language of immigrants, as established by the habitus of the elite.

O presente trabalho analisa a trajetória dos sujeitos vazios e expressos na norma lingüística efetivamente utilizada pela elite paulistana, em fins do século XIX até a década de 1930, quando S. Paulo recebeu grande afluxo de imigrantes usuários de \"línguas de sujeito nulo\". Partindo de uma avaliação crítica do \"variacionismo paramétrico\", baseado em Labov e Chomsky, propomos o \"gerativismo trans-sistêmico\". Nessa perspectiva, a língua é gerada em dois níveis: no nível de origem biológica e inata, a faculdade da linguagem, após amadurecimento, dota o indivíduo de \"competência lingüística\"; no nível de natureza social, o habitus, depois de internalizado, o proverá de \"capital lingüístico\", tal qual proposto por Bourdieu. Temos, assim, um módulo gerativo que permite ao indivíduo oferecer seus produtos no mercado lingüístico altamente concentrado. A análise de corpora lingüísticos nos levou a concluir que a elite, apesar de fazer um maior uso do sujeito vazio, já incrementava o uso dos expressos, fenômeno já bem avançado no dialeto caipira. Tal comportamento é explicado por fatores estruturais internos à língua, e também expressa, do ponto de vista histórico-social, uma clara opção por uma forma lingüística que se opunha à norma dos imigrantes, tal qual previsto no habitus da elite. / This paper analyses the trajectory of empty subjects and overt subjects in the standard language of the elite of São Paulo from the late XIX century to 1930s, when that city received a large influx of immigrants, who were speakers of languages with null subject . Starting from a critic assessment of the \"parametric variacionism\", based on Labov and Chomsky, we propose the \"trans-systemic generativism\". From this perspective, language is generated in two levels: in the biological and innate level, the language faculty, after matured, endows the individual with \"linguistic competence\"; in the social level, the habitus, after internalized, provides the individual with \"linguistic capital\", as proposed by Bourdieu. Therefore we believe that there is a generative module that allows individuals to offer their products in the highly concentrated linguistic market. The analysis of the linguistic corpora led us to conclude that the elite, despite making more use of empty subject, was already boosting the use of overt subjects, a phenomenon well advanced in the caipira dialect. This behavior is explained by structural factors internal to language, and also expressed, from the social-historical standpoint, a clear choice of a linguistic form as opposed to the standard language of immigrants, as established by the habitus of the elite.

This final thesis works with the topic of standard Czech language at the 1st level of primary schools. The theoretical part deals with the units of the Czech national language, standard Czech language and its development, current phenomenons in contemporary Czech, common Czech language, Czech dialects and sociolects. Furthermore, it briefly describes the development of teaching of standard Czech language at schools and other possibilities of teachers. It also analyzes particular morphological aspects of individual morphological changes subsequently examined in the practical part. The empirical part is a quantitative analysis and comparison of the ability of pupils of the first grade of selected schools in the Central Bohemian Region to identify the non-standard expressions and replace them with the correct standard forms. The work partly verifies the selected hypotheses and compares the results primarily with the results of similar research carried out at the 2nd level of primary schools.

Orientador: Rosane de Andrade Berlinck / Banca: Flávia Bezerra de Menezes Hirata-Vale / Banca: Sebastião Carlos Leite Gonçalves / Resumo: O presente estudo, sob as proposições da Linguística Histórica e da Sociolinguística Variacionista, averigua a posição dos clíticos pronominais, adjungidos a um único verbo ou a mais de um verbo, em orações presentes em textos jornalísticos produzidos na cidade de São Paulo e no município interiorano paulista de Rio Claro, no período que abrange o final do século XIX e o início do século XX, em particular, entre os anos de 1880 a 1920. Opta-se pelo referido recorte espacial por se tratar de localidades com perfis, em termos, diversos, fazendose uma análise para verificar prováveis semelhanças e particularidades do emprego dos pronomes clíticos nessas regiões. Quanto ao recorte temporal, trata-se de um período pouco investigado do ponto de vista linguístico e relevante pelo conjunto de fatos históricos que o caracterizam - nos cenários internacional e nacional, até mesmo na cidade e no estado de São Paulo - e pelas transformações observadas no seio das sociedades, com consequências inclusive no uso que os seus membros fazem da língua. A escolha do material utilizado como fonte de extração dos dados, os jornais, justifica-se pelo fato de eles, assim como outros meios do domínio discursivo jornalístico, serem compostos por textos de naturezas diversas - diferentes gêneros textuais -, possibilitando identificar, de acordo com aspectos formais e funcionais, os papéis dos interlocutores e o contexto situacional em que são produzidos (maior ou menor monitoramento), a presença de variantes padrão e não-padrão; neste caso, observando-se o uso das formas conservadoras e inovadoras em relação à norma vigente quanto à colocação dos pronomes clíticos. Baseando-se nos pressupostos teóricometodológicos da Teoria da Variação e Mudança Linguísticas, portanto, investigam-se quais variáveis independentes linguísticas e não-linguísticas motivam... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The present study, under the assertions of Historical Linguistics and Variationist Sociolinguistics, verifies the position of clitic pronouns, associated to a single verb or associated to more than one verb, in clauses which are part of journalistic texts produced in São Paulo city and in Rio Claro town, located in the interior of São Paulo State. The period analyzed embraces the end of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX century, particularly, between the years 1880 and 1920. This spatial cut is due to the diverse profile of the locations, what is analyzed to verify probable similarities and particularities of the clitic pronouns uses in those areas. Concerning the time cut, the period has had little investigation from the linguistic point of view, but it is relevant by the historical facts which distinguish it - in the national and international sceneries and even in São Paulo city and State - and also by the transformations observed in the societies, with consequences also present in the use of the language by their members. The materials used as data extraction source, the newspapers, were chosen because of their diverse nature of texts, just as other means of the journalistic discourse domain. This choice enables the presence of standard and non-standard variations and the identification of the roles of the interlocutors and the situational context in which they are produced (with higher or lower monitoring), according to formal and functional aspects. In this case, the use of conservative and innovator forms related to the present standard, while placing the clitic pronouns, are observed. Based on the theoretical and methodological purposes from the Theory of Linguistic Change and Variation, therefore, there is an investigation of which independent linguistic and non-linguistic variables motivate, inside the sentence, a certain position of the clitic pronouns... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

This thesis examines the use of non-standard language, more specifically non-standard vocabulary (i.e. slang, verlan, colloquialisms, vulgarities, foreign borrowings, and abbreviations), in a corpus of selected francophone rap tracks in order both to quantify its use and to investigate what determines its variation, focusing on the impact of diachronic, diatopic, gender and diaphasic determinants. The methodology relies on a lexicographic analysis to produce quantitative results which are then analysed qualitatively by means of extract analyses and semi-structured interviews with francophone rappers. To answer the research questions, the thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter presents the aforementioned methodology and the overall quantitative results from the thesis, while also introducing the notion of variation, which is then tackled in the last four chapters. The second chapter investigates diachronic determinants from two perspectives: different generations of rappers (1990/1991, 2001 and 2011) and one artist throughout his career (Akhenaton in 1991, 2011 and 2011). The third chapter looks at diatopic determinants, analysing the impact of ethnic and spatial origins. Three ethnic origins are compared (rappers of French, Algerian and Senegalese origin), together with three cities (Marseille, Paris and Brussels) and three departments (Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne). The fourth chapter focuses on gender determinants, with a comparison of male versus female rappers that also takes broader gender performativity into account. Finally, the fifth chapter examines the impact of diaphasic determinants. It analyses three rap genres (jazz/poetic, ego trip and knowledge rap), which then form the foundation for qualitative discussions of the effect of aesthetics, figures of speech, themes and performance. In conclusion, the contribution to knowledge of this work is the observation that the main determinant of high use of non-standard vocabulary is the performance of modern ego trip. The other determinants do not impact non-standard vocabulary to the same extent quantitatively or systematically, due to the complexity of the contextual and fluid identity performances involved with these determinants.