The Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus intermedius is regarded as the major cause of canine pyoderma, a common skin infection of dogs. However, despite its clinical importance, the population genetic structure of S. intermedius is poorly understood. The current study examined the population genetic structure of S. intermedius using a multilocus DNA sequencing approach. A collection of 99 isolates phenotypically identified as S. intermedius and originating from a broad array of animal hosts in several different countries was investigated. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the isolates belonged to three distinct species including S. intermedius, staphylococcus pseudintermedius, and Staphylococcus delphini, together referred to as the S. intermedius group (SIG). Importantly, it was discovered that all canine isolates investigated belonged to the S. pseudintermedius phylotype and it was concluded that S. pseudintermedius, not S. intermedius, is the common cause of canine pyoderma. Further, it was revealed that S. delphini is more clinically important than was previously thought. The allelic variation of agrD, which encodes the autoinducing peptide (AIP) of the agr quorum sensing system in staphylococci, was determined for all isolates. Four AIP variants were identified, including three which were present in all three species, suggesting that a common quorum sensing capacity has been conserved despite species differentiation in very different niches. Considerable clonal diversity was revealed within the S. pseudintermedius species, including several methicillin-resistant clones which have evolved by recent acquisition of the mecA gene. Using the sequence diversity identified, a simple diagnostic test was developed based on a PCR-RFLP approach to discriminate S. pseudintermedius from S. intermedius and S. delphini. Having established that S. pseudintermedius is the common canine pyoderma pathogen, this study aimed to investugate key host-pathogen interactions involved in colonisation of its canine host. Bioinformatic analysis of the whole genome sequence of a clinical isolate of S. pseudintermedius (strain ED99) revealed 17 genes encoding predicted LPXTG-containing cell wall-anchored (CWA) surface proteins. A diverse collection of S. pseudintermedius isolates and closely related staphylococcal species was screened for the presence of the genes encodng the novel CWA proteins. The majority of genes were widely distributed among the isolates examined, with nine genes being exclusive to S. pseudintermedius and eight being also present in other members of the SIG. In Gram-positive bacteria, a family of CWA proteins called microbial surgace components recognising adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs)mediates bacterial adherence to extracellular matrix proteins of the host. Three of the 17 predicted novel CWA proteins, designated SpsD, SpsL and SpsO, were selected for further characterisation of their role in host-pathogen interactions and were cloned and expressed on the surface of the surrogate host Lactococcus lactis. Solid phase adherence assays employing host extracellular matrix proteins and canine corneocytes were performed to identify host extracellular matrix proteins and canine corneocytes were performed to identify host receptors for the putative MSCRAMMs. L. lactis expressing SpsD demonstrated binding to fibronectin, fibrinogen and cytokeratin 10, SpsL mediated binding of L. lactis to fibronectin and canine fibrrinogen, and SpsD and SpsO both mediated L. lactis adherence to canine corneocytes. Additionally, a cell culture assay using a commercially available canine epidermal cell line was developed and the adherence of S. pseudintermedius ED99 and the L. lactis constructs to the cell line was tested. S. pseudintermedius ED99, but none of the MSCRAMM-expressing L. lactis strains, adhered to the canine epidermal cells in vitro, suggesting that receptors for S. pseudintermedius adherence which are present in ex vivo corneocytes are not present in undifferentiated canine epidermal cell line preparations. Take together, the present study provides broad new insights into the classification and evolution of the SIG, and the molecular interaction of S. pseudintermedius with its canine host.

Staphylococcus aureus is a notorious human pathogen associated with severe nosocomial and community-acquired infections. In addition, S. aureus is a major cause of animal diseases including skeletal infections of poultry and bovine and ovine mastitis, which are a large economic burden on the broiler chicken and dairy farming industries. The population structure of S. aureus associated with humans has been well studied. However, despite the prevalence of S. aureus infections in broiler flocks, our understanding of the diversity of poultry S. aureus is very limited. In this study, multilocus sequence typing was performed on 48 strains of S. aureus isolated from broiler chickens on farms in 6 countries on 4 different continents, in addition to 9 isolates from different species of reared game and wild birds in Scotland. This was followed by fine scale population genetic analysis of a subset of strains by single nucleotide polymorphism discovery. These studies reveal that the majority of S. aureus isolates from broiler chickens are the descendants of a single human-to-poultry host jump by a subtype of the worldwide human clonal complex 5 (CC5) clonal lineage unique to Poland. In contrast to human subtypes of the CC5 radiation, which demonstrate strong geographic clustering, the poultry CC5 clade was distributed in different continents, consistent with wide dissemination via the global poultry industry distribution network. In order to establish the molecular basis for avian specificity in the CC5 poultry clade, whole genome sequences were determined for a sequence type 5 (ST5) poultry isolate from Ireland and a basal human associated ST5 MRSA strain from Poland. Sequence analysis revealed that the poultry CC5 clade has undergone genetic diversification from its human progenitor strain by acquisition of novel mobile genetic elements from an avian-specific accessory gene pool, and by the inactivation of several proteins important for human disease pathogenesis. In order to examine the importance of positive selection in the adaptation of S. aureus to poultry and for S. aureus evolution, in general, genome-wide analysis of the ratio of synonymous to non-synonymous substitutions was performed on 30 strains from 3 humans and other animals, from diverse lineages. Positive selection has affected proteins from the majority of functional categories, resulting in diversification of the proteome, metabolome and replication capacity, which may be associated with adaptation of S. aureus to diverse environments. For several proteins, an elevated rate of non-synonymous substitutions unique to animal-associated lineages is consistent with a role for these proteins in host adaptation. Taken together, the results of this study have determined the evolutionary history of a major new animal pathogen that has undergone rapid avian host adaptation and intercontinental dissemination. The data highlight the importance of gene acquisition and loss and positive selection in the adaptive evolution of S. aureus.

Staphylococcus aureus is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality world-wide. This opportunistic pathogen is capable of causing several severe diseases that are exacerbated by its diverse and widespread antibiotic resistance profile. Therefore it is necessary to identify novel therapeutic targets to effectively treat S. aureus disease. Lorenz et al first described the Immunodominant Surface Antigen B, IsaB, because it was 1 of 4 unique proteins immunogenic during septicemia and not colonization, suggesting that IsaB may be a virulence factor and a possible novel therapeutic target. Interestingly, IsaB has no homology to proteins of known function and appears to be found only in Staphylococci. We sought to characterize the function of IsaB in S. aureus. We began our studies by determining how isaB was regulated by known S. aureus regulators and environmental stimuli. It was observed that the transcriptional regulator SarA represses expression of isaB, while serum and acidic pH induce expression. We found that IsaB is an extracellular nucleic acid binding protein, able to bind to dsDNA, ssDNA, and RNA and leads significant accumulation of eDNA on the cell surface. We employed multiple virulence models to ascertain the role of IsaB in virulence. Excitingly, we found that IsaB significantly protects S. aureus from antimicrobial peptides and Neutrophil Extracellular Traps, both components of the innate immune system. Another virulence mechanism of S. aureus is the ability to form biofilms. While recent studies show a significant role for eDNA in S. aureus biofilms, we found that IsaB actually had a negative affect on biofilms under certain growth conditions. Finally, to group IsaB into a known functional class, we successfully expressed and purified mature IsaB for structural determination by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, which is currently underway. Our studies show that IsaB is a novel virulence factor of S. aureus, able to bind eDNA and significantly protect from AMPs and NETs, and could therefore play a key role in immune evasion.

In dieser Arbeit wurde das in vitro Wachstumsverhalten ausgesuchter MRSA in Konkurrenz zu Bakterien der Standortflora unter Optimalbedingungen und unter Mangelbedingungen getestet. Es lässt sich für alle getesteten MRSA-Stämme zusammenfassend sagen, dass ihre klinische Prävalenz nicht mit dem Wachstum in vitro korreliert, d.h. das häufige Spa-Typen nicht besser unter unseren Versuchbedingungen gewachsen sind als seltene. In vitro konnte kein verdrängendes Wachstum des Methicillin sensiblen S. aureus gegenüber den resistenten Stämme beobachtet werden. Vielmehr gelingt es den MRSA-Stämmen, ein Wachstumsgemisch zu ihrem Vorteil zu beeinflussen, indem sie die getesteten anderen Mikroorganismen (S. epidermidis, S. cerivisiae) im Wachstum hemmen, mit Ausnahme von E. faecium. Die Arbeit beleuchtet die Schwierigkeiten der Identifizierung von probiotischen Arten zur Verdrängung eines MRSA. In Zukunft sollte vielleicht an der Optimierung von in vitro Systemen gearbeitet werden (in vitro Organkulturen) oder Tiermodelle verwendet werden. Den Transmissionsunterschieden und der Tenazität sind weiterhin Aufmerksamkeit zu widmen. Wie in der Literatur beschrieben ist es zum Verständnis des Wachstumsverhal-tens der resistenten Stämme wichtig zu wissen, auf welchen molekularbiologischen Grundlagen die Resistenz beruht, da eine einzelne Site-Mutation zusätzliche Resistenzen bedeuten und einen eventuellen Wachstumsnachteil wieder ausgleichen kann. Im Klinikalltag scheinen sich die MRSA-Stämme auszubreiten, die den Wachstumsnachteil bereits ausgeglichen haben, beziehungsweise deren Methicillinresistenz keinen Wachstumsnachteil bedeutet. / The competitive in vitro growth of selected MRSA-Clones in comparison to bacteria from the human skin and probiotic bacteria respectively are evaluated in this study. There was no proof of in vitro growth advantage for the common MRSA-Clones in comparison to the uncommonly found MRSA-Clones in clinical samples. This concludes that there must be a different reason for the spreading of the commonly found MRSA-Clones other than the growth rate. The competitive growth analysis with bacteria of the human skin (S. epidermidis, Methicillin susceptible S. aureus), E. faecium and probiotic bacteria (S. cerivisiae) showed, that none of the tested bacteria could decrease the growth rate of the MRSA-Clones in clinical relevant concentrations. Methicillin resistence shows a growth rate decrease for some MRSA-clones as described in the literature. By contrast, the results of this study reveal, that the clinical acquired MRSA-clones must have somehow compensated for the growth disadvantage.

Staphylokokken sind in erster Linie Saprophyten, welche die Haut und Schleimhäute des Menschen besiedeln und dort eine wichtige Rolle für das Gleichgewicht der gesunden Mikroflora spielen. Gleichzeitig haben sie sich aber auch zu den häufigsten Verursachern nosokomialer Infektionen entwickelt. Vor allem S. aureus und S. epidermidis verursachen Erkrankungen, die von leichten Haut- und Wundinfektionen bis hin zu lebensbedrohlichen Infektionen wie Pneumonien, Sepsis oder Endokarditis reichen. Infektionen durch S. epidermidis treten dabei meist in Verbindung mit Fremdkörpern wie Kathetersystemen, künstlichen Gelenken und Herzklappen auf. In diesem Zusammenhang scheint vor allem die Fähigkeit, einen Biofilm auf diesen Fremdkörpern bilden zu können eine große Rolle für die Pathogenese zu spielen. Die Therapie von Staphylokokken-Infektionen wird zunehmend durch die ausgeprägte Antibiotikaresistenz dieser Erreger erschwert, die sich mittlerweile auch auf Reserveantibiotika wie Daptomycin, Synercid® (Quinupristin/Dalfopristin) oder Linezolid erstreckt. In der Vergangenheit wurde gezeigt, dass subinhibitorische Konzentrationen des Streptogramin-Antibiotikums Synercid® die Biofilmbildung in S. epidermidis induzieren. Darüber hinaus mehren sich die Hinweise auch bei anderen Bakterien, dass geringe Antibiotika-Konzentrationen, wie sie in natürlichen Habitaten wie zum Beispiel im Boden vorkommen, wichtige Signale bei der Kommunikation von Bakterien untereinander darstellen und möglicherweise eine Funktion bei der Modulation des Metabolismus im Kampf um Nährstoffe ausüben. In dieser Promotionsarbeit sollte daher exemplarisch, mit Hilfe der erst seit kurzem zur Verfügung stehenden DNA-Mikroarray-Technik, der Effekt von subinhibitorischen Synercid®-Konzentrationen auf die globale Genexpression von S. epidermidis und S. aureus analysiert werden. Dabei stand vor allem die Wirkung auf die Biofilmbildung und die Identifikation neuer, an der Biofilmbildung beteiligter Komponenten im Mittelpunkt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass subinhibitorische Synercid®-Konzentrationen bei S. aureus, im Gegensatz zu S. epidermidis, zu einer reduzierten Biofilmbildung führen. Bei beiden Arten ist jedoch die unterschiedliche Biofilmbildung durch eine ausgeprägte Veränderung der allgemeinen Genexpression begleitet. Vor allem war eine starke Induktion von Genen zu beobachten, die für Proteine des Translationsapparates kodieren. Außerdem waren Gene des Nukleotid-Stoffwechsels, der Aminosäure-Synthese und des Kohlenstoff-Metabolismus unterschiedlich reguliert. Des Weiteren konnte mit Hilfe von HPLC-Analysen sowohl bei S. epidermidis als auch bei S. aureus eine reduzierte Konzentration des Signalmoleküls Guanosin-3-5-bisphosphat (ppGpp) festgestellt werden. ppGpp spielt vor allem bei der Kontrolle und Anpassung des Stoffwechsels an Wachstumsbedingungen, wie zum Beispiel das Nährstoffangebot, eine wichtige Rolle. Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die Inaktivierung der ribosomalen Proteine durch Synercid® die reduzierte ppGpp-Konzentration bedingt, was zum einen zur verstärkten Bildung ribosomaler Proteine führt und zum anderen den Zellstoffwechsel in einer Weise beeinflusst, der eine vermehrte extrazelluläre Polysaccharid-Synthese und damit Biofilmbildung ermöglicht. Zusammenfassend zeigen die hier vorgestellten Daten, dass die unterschiedliche Beeinflussung der Biofilmbildung bei S. epidermidis und S. aureus sehr wahrscheinlich durch verschiedene Regulationswege des ica-Operons und/oder unterschiedliche katabolische Fähigkeiten bedingt werden. Die Ergebnisse belegen weiterhin, dass die Wirkung von Antibiotika weit über deren bekannte inhibitorische Effekte hinausgeht und vor allem den Stoffwechsel der Bakterien dramatisch beeinflußt. Die Konsequenzen dieser Befunde sowohl für das Verständinis von mikrobiologischen Konsortien in Ökosystemen als auch für die Anwendung von Antibiotika in der Medizin sind noch nicht abzusehen, bieten jedoch eine interessante Grundlage für weitere experimentelle Arbeiten. / Staphylococci are common inhabitants of the human skin and mucosal membranes, as well as the most prevalent causes of nosocomial infections. The infections mainly caused by S. aureus and S. epidermidis range from mild skin infections to life-threatening infections, like pneumonia, bacteremia or endocarditis. Especially S. epidermidis is the primary pathogen involved in medical device associated infections. In this context, the ability to form a biofilm seems to be crucial. The prevalent antibiotic resistances of Staphylococci poses an increasing challenge to medicine in recent years. The remaining effective antibiotics to treat staphylococci infections are last resort antibiotics, such as daptomycine, Synercid® and linezolid. However, staphylococci isolates with intermediate and high resistances towards these antibiotics have already been reported. There are several lines of evidence that, beside their killing activity, antibiotics have a modulating effect on the metabolism of bacteria when applied in low concentrations. Hence, the impact of this natural compounds on bacteria have to be analysed in more detail in order to provide insights into their mode of action and how bacteria respond to these compounds. Former studies showed, that biofilm formation of staphylococci is influenced by environmental factors, such as temperature, osmolytic stress and the availability of glucose or oxygen, as well as by subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics. In this context it was shown, that low concentrations of tetracycline, erythromycine and Synercid® induce biofilm formation of S. epidermidis. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of Synercid® on biofilm formation and global gene expression of S. epidermidis and S. aureus. For this purpose DNA microarrays were used to identify and characterise the mechanisms by which Synercid® alters biofilm formation. Furthermore, this studies should lead to the identification of new factors involved in biofilm formation of staphylococci. The data presented here, demonstrate that subinhibitory concentrations of Synercid® reduce biofilm formation in S. aureus, while inducing it in S. epidermidis. The altered biofilm formation is accompanied by a strong impact on the overall gene expression of both species. Especially the expression of genes encoding proteins of the translational apparatus were increased. In addition, genes encoding proteins of the nucleotide metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis and carbohydrate utilisation were affected. Furthermore, HPLC analyses revealed a decreased concentration of the small nucleotide signal molecule guanosine-3-5-bisphosphate (ppGpp) in S. aureus and S. epidermidis under the influence of Synercid®. ppGpp is involved in the control and adaptation of cellular metabolism to changing growth conditions. We hypothesise that the reduced concentrations of ppGpp is due to the inactivation of ribosomal proteins, as a result of Synercid® binding, and mediates on the one hand the increased production of proteins of the translation apparatus and on the other hand effects the cellular metabolism in a way that enable the cells to produce more extracellular polysaccharides resulting finally in an enhanced biofilm formation. In summary, the data presented here show that the differential effect of Synercid® on biofilm formation of S. epidermidis and S. aureus is most likely due to a differential regulation of the ica operon and/or different catabolic abilities. Moreover the data suggest that the effect of antibiotics is more than the sole interaction with a target structure, but influence gene expression and metabolism of bacteria more globally. The consequences of these findings for the comprehension of the interplay in microbial communities as well as for the clinical use of antibiotics is far from being understood. However, the results of this work might provide an interesting basis for future experimental work elucidating these interferences.

O abate Shechita de aves, diferentemente do abate convencional, realiza o processo religioso conhecido como melichah, que consiste de três etapas: imersão em água, salga e dessalga das carcaças. Alguns estudos indicam que a salga pode ser benéfica para a qualidade microbiológica do produto, mas não se encontrou referência às bactérias halotolerantes como o Staphylococcus aureus e nem aos micro-organismos aeróbios mesófilos em frangos. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar a influência da etapa de salga na população de S. aureus e de microorganismos aeróbios mesófilos, identificar as espécies de Staphylococcus não produtoras de coagulase presentes e caracterizar fenotípica e genotipicamente os isolados de S. aureus e demais espécies. Para tanto foram coletadas 304 amostras de carcaças de aves, sendo metade obtida antes da etapa de salga e a outra metade após a dessalga. S. aureus esteve presente em 13/304 (4,3%) amostras, sendo que nove foram coletadas antes da salga. A população média de S. aureus nessas amostras foi de 2,5x10 UFC/g antes da salga e 8,9 UFC/g após a des salga, e de micro-organismos aeróbios mesófilos foi de 5,4x103 UFC/g antes da salga e 4,5x103 após a dessalga, variação esta que pode ser considerada normal e não decorrente da etapa de salga. Face à baixa frequência de S. aureus nas amostras, simulou-se o melichah em laboratório, sendo que o processo levou à redução significativa (p<0,05) da população de S. aureus. Todos os isolados identificados como S. aureus pelos diferentes métodos empregados foram capazes de produzir coagulase, portavam o gene nuc que é específico para essa espécie, mas não apresentavam o gene mecA que codifica para a resistência à meticilina. Em 88% (36/41) dos isolados identificados como S. aureus detectaram-se os genes codificadores para enterotoxina estafilocócica (SE) G e I, mas não os genes para as enterotoxinas clássicas. A maioria (37/41, 90,2%) desses isolados foi sensível aos antibióticos testados. Dentre as 890 colônias de Staphylococcus não produtoras de coagulase foram selecionadas 250 para serem submetidas à especiação, representando as diferentes amostras de aves. Foram identificadas as espécies S. hyicus (35%), S. cohnii subsp. urealyticus (29%), S. simulans (18%), S. epidermidis (6%), S. capitis (6%), S. hominis (2%), S. xylosus (2%), S. sciuri (1%), S. saprophyticus (1%) e S. warneri (0,4%). Destes isolados, foram selecionados 182 que foram avaliados quanto à sua capacidade de produzir enterotoxinas clássicas (kit VIDAS®), sendo que apenas três deles foram positivas, tendo sido detectada a presença somente de gene sec. Esses isolados eram da espécie S. epidermidis. Com relação à sensibilidade aos agentes antimicrobianos, verificou-se que 80% (148/185) foram resistentes a pelo menos um dos agentes testados, sendo a maior percentagem deles resistente à tetracicilina. Os resultados indicam que o abatedouro trabalha seguindo Boas Práticas de Fabricação (BPF) e que as aves produzidas apresentam baixo risco de disseminação de Staphylococcus produtores de toxina ou resistentes a agentes antimicrobianos. A etapa do melichah pode contribuir para a redução desse patógeno na superfície das carcaças. . / In the Schechita slaughter, different from the conventional slaughter, there is a religious process called melichah that is be divided in three steps: immersion in water, salting and washing the carcasses. Some studies indicate that the salting step may benefit the microbial quality of the product, but no information concerning its influence on halotolerant bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus or on mesophilic aerobes bacteria in poultry. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the influence of the salting step in the population of S. aureus and mesophilic microorganisms; to identify the species of coagulase negative Staphylococcus and to characterize, pheno and genotypically, the isolates. A total of 304 poultry carcasses were sampled, being half collected before salting and half after desalting steps. S. aureus was found in 13/304 (4.5%) samples being nine collected before salting. Average population of S. aureus in pre-salting carcasses was 2.5 x 10 CFU/g and 8.9 CFU/g after salt removal. Mean mesophlic aerobes population was5.4 x 103 CFU/g and 4.5 x 103 CFU/g for carcasses collected before salting and after washing steps, respectively. This variation can be considered normal and not derived from the salting step. As the frequency of S. aureus in the samples was low, the melichah was simulated in the lab showing that the process can reduce (p<0.05) the population of S. aureus. All isolates of S. aureus were able to produce coagulase, harbored the gene nuc (specific for the species) but not mecA that encondes for methicilin resistance. Amongst the S. aureus isolates 88% (36/41) harbored genes coding for staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) G and I, but no genes for classical SE. The majority of these isolates (37/41, 90.2%) were sensitive to all antibiotics tested. 250 colonies, representing the different poultry samples were selected amongst the 890 coagulase negative Staphylococcus colonies for further identification. The species S. hyicus (35%), S. cohnii subsp. urealyticus (29%), S. simulans (18%), S. epidermidis (6%), S. capitis (6%) S. hominis (2%), S. xylosus (2%), S. sciuri (1%), S. saprophyticus (1%) and S. warneri (0,4%) were identified. Amongst the 250 isolates identified 182 were selected for classical SE production evaluation (kit Vidas®) being only three positive. The gene sec was detected in these isolates, and had been identified as S. epidermidis. Antibiotic resistance was observed in 80% (148/185) of the coagulase negative isolates, and tetraciclin resistance was the most frequent phenotype. The results indicate that this slaughterhouse applies good manufacturing practices (GMP) and that the poultry produced present low risk in disseminating enterotoxin producing or antibiotic resistant Staphylococcus. The melichah may contribute to the reduction of the pathogen in the surface of the carcasses.

Staphylococcus spp. é uma das principais causas da mastite bovina, onde o uso de antimicrobianos tem sido comprometido por mecanismos de resistência bacteriana e geração de resíduos que alteram a qualidade e segurança alimentar do leite e derivados. Foi avaliada a atividade in vitro da nisina (NS), do brometo de dioctadecildimetilamônio (DDA) e do complexo NS/DDA contra Staphylococcus spp. resistentes isolados de mastite bovina. A CBM50 da nisina e DDA foi 50 e 4&#956;g/mL, respectivamente, enquanto que a CBM50 do complexo NS/DDA foi 3/2&#956;g/mL, com efeito parcialmente sinérgico. O estudo de time-kill revelou redução de 3 log10 UFC/mL após uma hora de interação entre NS/DDA e a bactéria. A microscopia de fluorescência confirmou uma perda da viabilidade após 6 horas de interação. A interação NS/DDA resultou na formação de nanopartículas (148,5 nm) catiônicas (+8,84 mV) cuja interação com a superfície bacteriana negativa (-27,32 mV) resultou em ação bactericida. NS/DDA pode ser uma alternativa promissora contra Staphylococcus spp. resistentes isolados de mastite bovina. / Staphylococcus spp. is a major cause of bovine mastitis, where the use of antimicrobials has been compromised by bacterial resistance mechanisms and waste generation that change the food quality and safety of milk and dairy products. The in vitro activity antibacterial was evaluated of the nisin (NS), of the dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDA) and of the NS/DDA complex against drug-resistant Staphylococcus spp. isolated from bovine mastitis. The CBM50 of nisin and DDA were 50 and 4&#956;g/ml, respectively, while the CBM50 NS/DDA complex was 3/2mg/mL, with partially synergistic effect. The time-kill study showed reduction of 3log10 CFU/mL after an hour of interaction between NS/DDA and bacteria. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed a loss of viability after 6h of interaction. NS/DDA interaction resulted in formation of nanoparticles (148.5 nm) cationic (+8.84 mV) which interact with negative bacterial surface (-27.32 mV) resulted in bactericidal activity. NS/DDA may be a promising alternative against drug-resistant Staphylococcus spp. isolated from bovine mastitis.

Orientador: Ana Claúdia Pavarina / Banca: Eunice Teresinha Giampaolo / Banca: Ana Paula Dias Ribeiro / Resumo: A necessidade de superar o desafio criado pelos biofilmes resistentes aos tratamentos antimicrobianos convencionais tem levado à busca por tratamentos alternativos, como terapia fotodinâmica antimicrobiana (aPDT). Este estudo avaliou in vitro a eficácia da aPDT na inativação de biofilmes de Staphylococcus aureus suscetíveis e resistentes à meticilina (MRSA e MSSA), mediado pelos fotossensibilizadores (PSs) Curcumina (Cur) e Photodithazine® (PDZ). Biofilmes foram formados e tratados com diferentes concentrações de Cur (0, 20, 40 e 80 μM) e PDZ (0, 50 e 75 mg/L), e iluminados ou não por fonte de luz LED (Cur 455 ± 3 nm/ 5,28 J/cm2; PDZ 660 ± 3 nm/ 5,28 J/cm2 ou 50 J/cm²). Os grupos Controle Positivo (CP) não receberam nenhum PS e também não foram iluminados. A viabilidade dos micro-organismos após a aPDT foi avaliado pelo número de colônias viáveis, pelo ensaio de XTT e pela utilização do kit LIVE/DEAD® na Microscopia Confocal de Varredura à Laser (MCVL). Os resultados foram avaliados por análises de variância de dois fatores de efeitos fixos (ANOVA) e complementados por comparações múltiplas de médias pelo teste de Tukey. Para ambas as cepas, todas as concentrações de Cur e PDZ testadas reduziram significativamente a atividade metabólica e o UFC/mL para ambos micro-organismos quando comparado com os grupos CN (p0,05). Os resultados foram otimizados para a Cur quando utilizou-se a maior concentração (80 μM), para a PDZ, a maior redução nos micro-organismos foi observada quando associou-se a maior concentração de PDZ (75 mg/L) com a maior dose de luz (50 J/cm²). Os biofilmes submetidos a aPDT demostraram pela MCVL um maior número de células coradas em vermelho, indicando que a aPDT foi eficaz para promover danos ou morte às células bacterianas. Assim, a aPDT pode ser considerada promissora para atuar de forma sinérgica no tratamento de infecções bacterianas / Abstract: The need to overcome the challenge created by biofilms regarding conventional antimicrobial approaches has lead to search of alternative treatments such as Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT). This in vitro study evaluated the efficacy of aPDT using the photosensitizer (PS) Curcumin (Cur) and Photodithazine® (PDZ) in the inactivation of biofilms of methicillin susceptible and resistant S. aureus (MSSA and MRSA). Biofilms were treated with different Cur (0, 20, 40 or 80 μM of Cur) and PDZ concentrations (0, 50 or 75 mg/L) and illuminated or not with LED source (Cur 455 ± 3 nm/ 5.28 J/cm2; PDZ 660 ± 3 nm/ 5.28 J/cm2 or 50 J/cm²). Positive control samples were not exposed to PS or light. The microorganisms viability after aPDT were evaluated by counting the number of colonies, the XTT assay and LIVE/DEAD® staining using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The results were evaluated by analysis of variance, two-factor fixed effects (ANOVA) and complemented by multiple comparisons by Tukey test. For both strains, all the tested Cur and PDZ concentrations reduced significantly both biofilm metabolic activity and CFU/mL compared to the negative control (p0.05). Moreover, the results were optimized for Cur when the higher concentration was used (80 μM); For PDZ, the best results were obtained when it was associated a higher concentration of PDZ (75 mg/L) with the higher dose of light (50 J/cm²). Biofilms submitted to aPDT showed a large number of red-stained colonies, indicating that this therapy was efficient in disrupting the bacterial membrane. It can be concluded that PS was efficient in reducing viable colonies of both S. aureus strains by damaging cell membrane and causing cell death. Thus, the aPDT is can be considered promising to act synergistically in the treatment of bacterial infections / Mestre

Hintergrund: Zunehmend wird der Eigenschaft von Staphylococcus aureus als fakultativ intrazellulärem Erreger Bedeutung zugemessen. Ein direkter Nachweis der in vivo Relevanz von fakultativ intrazellulärem S. aureus bleibt allerdings bisher aus. Der Mechanismus zellulärer Invasivität ist bekannt und korreliert mit verschiedenen molekularen Markern (spa-Typ, SCCmec-Typ und pls/Pls). In dieser Studie wurde die Zuverlässigkeit und Ausweitbarkeit dieser Marker getestet. Des Weiteren wurde überprüft, ob sich die zelluläre Invasivität von kolonisierenden und Infektions-assoziierten MRSA-Isolaten unterscheidet und, ob die alleinige Bestimmung molekularer Marker in vitro die Virulenz eines Isolats in vivo abzuschätzen vermag. Methoden:Insgesamt wurden 109 MRSA-Isolate gesammelt, molekular charakterisiert (spa-Typ, BURP-Analyse, SCCmec-Typ, pls, agr-Typ, Hämolyseverhalten) und das Potential zellulärer Invasivität in vitro ermittelt. Die Assoziation eines Isolates mit einer Infektion in vivo wurde nachverfolgt (93 Kolonisierer versus 16 Infektions-assoziierte-Isolate). Zusätzlich wurde eine Referenzgruppe aus 13 S. aureus-Isolaten etabliert, die klinisch mit vergleichsweise invasiven Infektionen assoziiert waren (12 Osteomyelitis-Isolate und 1 Endokarditis-Isolat). Ergebnisse: Die bekannten molekularen Marker zellulärer Invasivität korrelieren zuverlässig in einer Population klinischer MRSA-Isolate und lassen sich auch auf bisher nicht bekannte (spa- und SCCmec-) Typen ausweiten. Das Hämolyseverhalten korrelierte nicht mit der zellulären Invasivität. Der agr-Typ wurde als weiterer molekularer Marker identifiziert. Die zelluläre Invasivität war unabhängig von der Etablierung einer Infektion in vivo (mediane Invasivität der Kolonisierer 100% versus 108% der Infektions-assoziierten Studienisolate und 110% der externen Referenzisolate). Des Weiteren waren die molekularen Marker spa- und agr-Typ nicht in der Lage, die Virulenz eines MRSA-Isolats in vivo abzuschätzen. Diskussion: Die zelluläre Invasivität klinischer MRSA-Isolate korreliert zuverlässig mit molekularen Markern. Allerdings vermögen weder die zelluläre Invasivität, noch mit ihr assoziierte molekulare Marker die Etablierung einer Infektion in vivo vorherzusagen. Beide scheinen also als Surrogat-Parameter zur Abschätzung der klinischen Virulenz eines Isolats ungeeignet. Zur Klärung der Frage, ob molekulare Marker zellulärer Invasivität in anderen Abschnitten der Pathogenese von S. aureus- Infektionen eine Rolle spielen, bedarf es weiterer Studien. / Background: Fibronectin-binding of S. aureus is reported to correlate with the propensity to cause invasive infections. Cellular invasion of S. aureus is Fn dependent and clusters with molecular markers (spa type, SCCmec, Pls). Here, we tested the hypothesis that cellular invasiveness and corresponding molecular markers predict the propensity to cause infections in a prospective cohort. Methods: 109 clinical MRSA isolates were characterized (agr, spa, BURP, SCCmec, pls) and cellular invasiveness was determined. Association with clinical infection was assessed (93 colonizing vs. 16 infecting isolates). Further 13 S. aureus isolates from patients with severe S. aureus infections served as an external comparison. Results: The agr type was identified as a new marker for invasiveness and known molecular markers were corroborated. Establishment of infection was independent from cellular invasiveness of MRSA (mean colonizing vs. infecting isolates 100% and 89%, respectively; external infecting isolates: 109%). Furthermore agr and spa types were unable to predict clinical behavior. Conclusion: Cellular invasiveness of MRSA isolates clusters reproducibly with molecular markers. However, cellular invasiveness and molecular markers cannot predict establishment of infection. This suggests that both criteria may not be used as surrogate parameters for the virulence potential of human MRSA isolates.

Mastitis is a syndrome manifested by mammary gland inflammation which is thought to cause between $300 and $400 million in annual losses to the Canadian Dairy Industry. Studies have indicated that <i>S. aureus</i> may cause the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines which may enhance its survival within the bovine mammary gland. However, other studies have reported differing results following S. aureus intramammary infection (IMI). This thesis tested the hypothesis that S. aureus generated anti-inflammatory cytokine responses at the site of infection. In the first objective, different S. aureus isolates were screened for their effects on cytokine production (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-10) by bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in vitro. Nine S. aureus isolates were co-cultured with PBMCs from lactating dairy cattle. Cattle used in the study had recall immune responses to <i>S. aureus</i>. The majority (6/9) of S. aureus isolates had minor effectors on cytokine production. The three remaining isolates generated large cytokine responses with both pro-inflammatory (IFN-γ and TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4 and IL-10) characteristics. Two of these three isolates were tested in vivo by experimentally infecting lactating ewes. Cytokine production was characterized in the teat end, the mammary parenchyma and the supramammary lymph nodes (SMLNs). One isolate generated anti-inflammatory responses <i>in vivo</i> (IL-4 and IL-10) whilst the other generated both pro-inflammatory (IFN-γ) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) responses in vivo. Given that some studies have suggested a role of staphylococcal enterotoxin C (sec) in the generation of anti-inflammatory responses, the role of sec was also investigated using bovine PBMCs. When purified SEC protein was co-cultured with PBMCs from beef steers, anti-inflammatory cytokines were produced. However, a <i>S. aureus</i> strain which was transformed for the sec gene did not affect cytokine production when co-cultured with PBMCs from lactating dairy cattle. The results of this thesis suggest that <i>S. aureus</i> infection can cause anti-inflammatory cytokine production but the response depends on the isolate causing the infection. Furthermore, the role of sec appears to be minimal.