Concrete, which was hitherto considered as a brittle material, has shown much better softening behavior after the post peak load than anticipated. This behavior of concrete did put the researchers in a quandary, whether to categorize concrete under brittle materials or not. Consequently concrete has been called a quasi-brittle material. Fracture mechanics concepts like Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and Plastic limit analysis applicable to both brittle and ductile materials have been applied to concrete to characterize the fracture behavior. Because of quasi-brittle nature of concrete, which lies between ductile and brittle response and due to the presence of process zone ahead of crack/notch tip instead of a plastic zone, it is found that non-linear fracture mechanics (NLFM) principles are more suitable than linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) principles to characterize fracture behavior. Fracture energy, fracture process zone (FPZ) size and the behavior of concrete during fracture process are the fracture characteristics, which are at the forefront of research on concrete fracture. Another important output from the research on concrete fracture has been the size effect. Numerous investigations, through mathematical modeling and experiments, have been carried out and reported in literature on the effect of size on the strength of concrete and fracture energy. Identification of the sources of size effect is of prime importance to arrive at a clear analytical model, which gives a comprehensive insight into the size effect. With the support of an unambiguous theory, it is possible to incorporate the size effects into codes of practices of concrete design. However, the theories put forth to describe the size effect do not seem to follow acceptable regression. After introduction in Chapter-1 and literature survey in Chapter-2, Chapter-3 details the study on size effect through three point bend (TPB) tests on 3D geometrically similar specimens. Fracture behavior of beams with smaller process zone size in relation to ligament dimension approaches LEFM. The fracture energy obtained from such beams is said to be size independent. In the current work Size effect law (Bazant et al. 1987) is used on beams geometrically similar in three dimensions with the depth of the largest beam being equal to 750mm, and size independent fracture energy G Bf is obtained. In literature very few results are available on the results obtained from testing geometrically similar beams in three dimensions and with such large depth. In the current thesis the results from size effect tests yielded average fracture energy of 232 N/m. Generally the fracture energies obtained from 2D-geometrically similar specimens are in the range of 60-70 N/m as could be seen in literature. From 3D-geometrically similar specimens, the fracture energies are higher. The reason is increased peak load, could be due to increased width. The RILEM fracture energy Gf , determined from TPB tests, is said to be size dependent. The assumption made in the work of fracture is that the total strain energy is utilized for the fracture of the specimen. The fracture energy is proportional to the size of the FPZ, it also implies that FPZ size increases with increase in (W−a) of beam. This also means that FPZ is proportional to the depth W for a given notch to depth ratio, because for a given notch/depth, (W−a) which is also W(1 − a ) is proportional to W`because (1 − a ) is a constant. WWThis corroborates the fact that fracture energy increases with size. Interestingly, the same conclusion has been drawn by Abdalla & Karihaloo (2006). They have plotted a curve relating fracture process zone length and overall depth the beam. In the present study a new method namely Fracture energy release rate method is suggested. In the new method the plot of Gf / (W−a) versus (W−a) is obtained from a set of experimental results. The plot is found to follow power law and showed almost constant value of Gf / (W−a) at larger ligament lengths. This means that fracture energy reaches a constant value at large ligament lengths reaffirming that the fracture energy from very large specimen is size independent. The new method is verified for the data from literature and is found to give consistent results. In a quasi-brittle material such as concrete, a fracture process zone forms ahead of a pre-existing crack (notch) tip before the crack propagates from the tip. The process zone contains a scatter of micro-cracks, which coalesce into one or more macro-cracks, which eventually lead to fracture. These micro-cracks and macro-cracks release stresses in the form of acoustic waves having different amplitudes. Each micro or macro crack formation is called an acoustic emission (AE) event. Through AE technique it is possible to locate the positions of AE events. The zone containing these AE events is termed the fracture process zone (FPZ). In Chapter-4, a study on the evolution of fracture process zone is made using AE technique. In the AE study, the fracture process zone is seen as a region with a lot of acoustic emission event locations. Instead of the amplitudes of the events, the absolute AE energy is used to quantify the size of the process zone at various loading stages. It has been shown that the continuous activities during the evolution of fracture process zone correspond to the formation of FPZ, the size of which is quantified based on the density of AE events and AE energy. The total AE energy released in the zone is found to be about 78% of the total AE energy released and this is viewed as possible FPZ. The result reasonably supports the conclusion, from Otsuka and Date (2000) who tested compact tension specimens, that zone over which AE energy is released is about 95% can be regarded as the fracture process zone. As pointed out earlier, among the fracture characteristics, the determination of fracture energy, which is size independent, is the main concern of research fraternity. Kai Duan et al. (2003) have assumed a bi-linear variation of local fracture energy in the boundary effect model (BEM) to showcase the size effect due to proximity of FPZ to the specimen back boundary. In fact the local fracture energy is shown to be constant away from boundary and reducing while approaching the specimen back boundary. The constant local fracture energy is quantified as size independent fracture energy. A relationship between Gf , size independent fracture energy GF , un-cracked ligament length and transition ligament length was developed in the form of equations. In the proposed method the transition ligament length al is taken from the plot of histograms of energy of AE events plotted over the un-cracked ligament. The value of GF is calculated by solving these over-determined equations using the RILEM fracture energies obtained from TPB tests. In chapter-5 a new method involving BEM and AE techniques is presented. The histogram of energy of AE events along the un-cracked ligament, which incidentally matches in pattern with the local fracture energy distribution, assumed by Kai Duan et al. (2003), along the un-cracked ligament, is used to obtain the value of GF , of course using the same equations from BEM developed by Kai Duan et al. (2003). A critical observation of the histogram of energy of AE events, described in the previous chapter, showed a declining trend of AE event pattern towards the notch tip also in addition to the one towards the specimen back boundary. The pattern of AE energy distribution suggests a tri-linear rather than bi-linear local fracture energy distribution over un-cracked ligament as given in BEM. Accordingly in Chapter-6, GF is obtained from a tri-linear model, which is an improved bi-linear hybrid model, after developing expressions relating Gf , GF , (W−a) with two transition ligament lengths al and blon both sides. The values of Gf , and GF from both bi-linear hybrid method and tri-linear method are tabulated and compared. In addition to GF , the length of FPZ is estimated from the tri-linear model and compared with the values obtained from softening beam model (SBM) by Ananthan et al. (1990). There seems to be a good agreement between the results. A comparative study of size independent fracture energies obtained from the methods described in the previous chapters is made. The fracture process in concrete is another interesting topic for research. Due to heterogeneity, the fracture process is a blend of complex activities. AE technique serves as an effective tool to qualitatively describe the fracture process through a damage parameter called b-value. In the Gutenberg-Richter empirical relationship log 10N=a−bM, the constant ‘b’ is called the b-value and is the log linear slope of frequency-magnitude distribution. Fault rupture inside earth’s crust and failure process in concrete are analogous. The b-value, is calculated conventionally till now, based on amplitude of AE data from concrete specimens, and is used to describe the damage process. Further, sampling size of event group is found to influence the calculated b-value from the conventional method, as pointed out by Colombo et al. (2003). Hence standardization of event group size, used in the statistical analysis while calculating b-value, should be based on some logical assumption, to bring consistency into analytical study on b-value. In Chapter-7, a methodology has been suggested to determine the b-value from AE energy and its utilization to quantify fracture process zone length. The event group is chosen based on clusters of energy or quanta as named in the thesis. Quanta conform to the damage stages and justify well their use in the determination of the b-value, apparently a damage parameter and also FPZ length. The results obtained on the basis of quanta agree well with the earlier results.

Le 11 mai 2011, un double séisme a frappé la ville de Lorca, dans le sud-est de l'Espagne. Ce séisme a eu de lourdes conséquences pour la population et provoqué de nombreux dégâts sur les bâtiments de la ville. Les tremblements de terre sont des phénomènes caractérisés par leur relative faible fréquence et par leur violence. Dans le bassin méditerranéen, la grande majorité des séismes ne sont perceptibles qu'à l'aide d'instruments de mesure. Certains événements récents ont néanmoins surpris la communauté scientifique par leur magnitude modérée mais leur intensité élevée. C'est notamment le cas du tremblement de terre de Lorca. Depuis 40 ans, l'administration espagnole essaye de se prémunir davantage contre ce phénomène. Cela se traduit par l'évolution des normes parasismiques appliquées à la construction ou encore par la création de cartes de zonages sismiques intégrant à chaque révision une plus grande portion du territoire exposée au risque. Cependant, ces mesures évoluent au rythme des événements. Or, la localisation des villes en zone sismique et la vulnérabilité des bâtiments préalablement construits sont des variables difficilement ajustables à ces nouvelles normes. Lorsqu'un séisme affecte une ville, l'origine des dommages corporels réside dans la coïncidence temporelle et spatiale entre l'individu et le danger, danger la plupart du temps lié aux bâtiments. Dans ce contexte, nous avons proposé une démarche focalisée sur l'individu. Pendant la période de crise sismique, la mobilité individuelle apparaît comme l'élément qui va permettre la coïncidence spatiale entre le danger et l'individu. A partir d'entretiens qualitatifs, nous avons analysé la mobilité individuelle en période de crise sismique, par la collecte d'informations très fines sur les aspects spatiaux et temporels de celle-là. Parallèlement, nous proposons une étude des principaux dangers observés pour le cas de Lorca et comment ceux-ci peuvent toucher la population. En général, la plupart des décès en cas de séismes se produisent à l'intérieur des bâtiments à cause de leur effondrement. Cependant, dans le cas de séismes d'intensité faible à modérée, c'est la chute d'éléments non structuraux, notamment d'éléments de façade, qui constitue un danger. En croisant spatialement et temporellement la mobilité des individus avec les dangers, nous concluons que la mobilité individuelle est un facteur déterminant de l'exposition humaine. Les facteurs qui vont conditionner la mobilité sont principalement liés à la mise en protection immédiate ainsi qu'à l'organisation en famille préalablement à l'évacuation de la ville. Après avoir permis d'évaluer les dangers, les analyse spatiales ont mis en avant que la grande incertitude de cette évaluation rend difficiles les études très fines. Cependant, elles ouvrent des perspectives intéressantes pour des travaux futurs. Enfin, notre travail de thèse a proposé l'adaptation d'une méthodologie de collecte et d'analyse des dynamiques spatiales et temporelles liées aux individus, à la base créée pour les crues rapides. Cette méthode s'est montrée facilement transposable à de futurs événements, ce qui permettrait de réaliser des études comparatives. / May the eleventh, 2011, a double earthquake struck the town of Lorca in southeastern Spain. The earthquake had serious consequences for the population and caused extensive damage to buildings in the town. Earthquakes are phenomena characterized by their relatively low frequency and their violence. In the Mediterranean Basin, most earthquakes are only perceptible using measuring instruments. Recent seismic events have surprised the scientific community by their moderate magnitude associated with a high intensity. This is particularly the case of Lorca's earthquake. In the last 40 years, the Spanish authorities have tried to develop prevention towards seismic phenomenon. Measures have been taken by improving seismic building codes or by updating the seismic zoning, each revision taking into account wider zones at risk. In general, events give rhythm to the evolution of these measures. However, variables like the location of cities in seismic zones and the vulnerability of existing buildings can hardly be adjusted to these new standards. When an earthquake affects a town, danger is mostly caused by building failure. However, injuries and fatalities are due to the spatial and temporal coincidence between the individual and the danger. In this context, we propose an approach focused on the individual. During a seismic crisis, individual mobility appears to be the element that will allow the spatial coincidence between the danger and the individual. We analyzed individual mobility during seismic crisis by collecting very precise information regarding spatial and temporal aspects of mobility through qualitative interviews. Simultaneously, we carried out a study of dangers observed in the case of Lorca. In general, most of the fatalities caused by earthquakes occur inside collapsed buildings. However, in the case of low-to-moderate-intensity earthquakes, danger is related to the fall of non-structural elements, especially frontage elements. By combining spatial and temporal mobility of individuals with dangers, we conclude that individual mobility is a determinant factor of human exposure. The factors that will determine mobility are mainly related to the immediate protection measures as well as the family organization prior to the town evacuation. Finally, spatial analysis allowed assessing dangers. The associated uncertainty of this evaluation makes it difficult a more accurate study, but offers perspectives for future work. This work proposes the adaptation of a methodology to collect and analyze spatial and temporal dynamics related to individuals. Developed initially for flash flood analysis, this methodology is transferable to future events, enabling comparative studies.

Durch die vorliegende Studie wurde der Einfluss von Strukturelementen auf das Liege- und Aggressionsverhalten von Pferden in Gruppenhaltung untersucht. Die Strukturelemente sollten Rückzugsmöglichkeiten bieten, sowie in ihrem Bereich zur Aufhebung der Individualdistanz führen und dadurch die Fläche relativ vergrößern. Für die Versuche stellte das Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach drei unabhängige Pferdegruppen mit verschiedener Herdengröße zur Verfügung, die jeweils in Einraum- Innenlaufställen gehalten wurden. Die Datenerfassung fand zwischen 23 und sieben Uhr statt. Insgesamt wurden 336 Stunden Videomaterial ausgewertet. Beim Ruheverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling-Verfahrens die Parameter Gesamtliegedauer, Dauer in Seitenlage, Dauer der Einzelphasen in Seitenlage und Abliegehäufigkeit pro Nacht erfasst. Es wurden Versuchsphasen ohne Strukturelemente und mit hängenden Planen als Strukturierung durchgeführt. Im ersten Stall kamen außerdem über einander gestapelte Strohballen zum Einsatz. Diese Art der Strukturierung stellte sich jedoch als nicht praktikabel heraus und führte im Vergleich zu den Planen zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung der Gesamtliegedauer. In Stall 1 konnte man eine tendenzielle Verbesserung der Parameter Gesamtliegedauer und Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage durch das Anbringen von Planen sehen. In Stall 3 dagegen verschlechterte sich das Ruheverhalten in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen gegenüber den Versuchsphasen ohne Struktur. Die Werte der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage nahmen signifikant ab. In Stall 2 zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Möglicherweise ist die Wirkung der Strukturelemente auf das Liegeverhalten abhängig von der Flächengröße. Stall 1 hatte bezogen auf die Leitlinien des BMELV die größte und Stall 3 die kleinste Fläche. Bei den anderen Parametern des Liegeverhaltens gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Mit Hilfe des time-sampling-Verfahrens wurde die Anzahl gleichzeitig liegender Pferde und gleichzeitig liegender Pferde in Seitenlage bestimmt. Auch hier zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Bei der Gegenüberstellung der Werte der Gesamtliegedauer und der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage mit dem Alter der Pferde (Stall 1 und Stall 3) und mit dem Integrationszeitpunkt (Stall 1) konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Beim Aggressionsverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling-Verfahrens in den Ställen 2 und 3 verschiedene Arten von Aggressionen erfasst, die dann in die drei Intensitätsgrade Low-Level-, Mid-Level- und High-Level-Aggressionen unterteilt wurden. Neben der Anzahl wurde die Dauer der verschiedenen Aggressionen bewertet. Insgesamt konnte eine positive Wirkung der Planen auf das Aggressionsverhalten beobachtet werden. Die Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen nahm in beiden Ställen tendenziell in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen ab. In Stall 3 konnte, wenn man die Aggressionen stundenweise betrachtet, ein signifikanter Unterschied festgestellt werden. Auch der Hinterhandschlag und die Aggressionen, welche das Ruheverhalten stören, verringerten sich tendenziell nach dem Anbringen von Strukturelementen. In beiden Ställen nahm die relative Häufigkeit von Mid-Level-Aggressionen nach dem Anbringen von Planen zu. Dagegen konnte bei den High-Level-Aggressionen und in Stall 3 bei den Low-Level-Aggressionen eine relative Abnahme beobachtet werden. Sowohl die Anzahl als auch die Dauer der Mid-Level-Aggressionen verringerten sich in Stall 3 stundenweise betrachtet signifikant in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen. In Stall 2 war bei den High-Level-Aggressionen sowohl bei der Dauer als auch bei der Anzahl eine signifikante Abnahme zu sehen. Wenn man das Aggressionsverhalten in Bezug zu der Fläche in den zwei Ställen betrachtet, schien diese vor allem einen Einfluss auf die High-Level-Aggressionen zu nehmen. Mit Hilfe des Rangindex der Pferde im Stall 3 wurde eine Rangordnung aufgestellt. Zwischen dem Platz der Pferde in der Rangordnung und den Parametern des Ruheverhaltens (Gesamtliegedauer, Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage) sowie dem Alter der Pferde konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Zwischen dem Rangindex und der Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen bestand dagegen ein hoch signifikanter Zusammenhang. Im Rahmen dieser Studie ist das Anbringen von Strukturelementen in Bezug auf das Aggressionsverhalten in Einraum-Innenlaufställen von Pferden zu empfehlen. Die Wirkung auf das Liegeverhalten der Pferde sollte in weiteren Studien untersucht werden.

The use of recycled concrete with substitution of the natural aggregate by recycled aggregate from construction and demolition waste (CDW) is one of the most promising alternatives for reduction of the environmental impact of the construction industry. However, for this solution be applied in wide scale it is necessary that new material can be used in the production of structural elements, which represent the largest portion of the concrete consumption. In this work, the mechanical behaviour of flags and T beams, formed by a precast element and a layer of reinforced concrete, submitted to flexural test. To produce the upper concrete layer recycled aggregates were used. The substitution rates of fine and coarse natural aggregate for recycled ones were 50% and 100%. / A utilização do concreto reciclado com substituição dos agregados naturais por agregados reciclados oriundos do beneficiamento do resíduo de construção e demolição (RCD) é uma das alternativas mais promissoras para redução do impacto ambiental e do consumo de energia do setor da Construção Civil. No entanto, para que essa solução seja aplicada em larga escala é preciso que esse novo material possa ser utilizado na produção de elementos estruturais, que representam a maior parcela do consumo do concreto. Neste trabalho, foi avaliado experimentalmente o comportamento mecânico de lajes prémoldadas, através do ensaio de vigas T e de lajes pré-moldadas de concreto armado, submetidas a ensaio de flexão em 4 pontos, produzidas com concreto reciclado utilizando 50% e 100% de substituição do agregado natural por reciclado. Buscando avaliar e verificar a viabilidade técnica da utilização de RCD no concreto para a produção de tais elementos. Verifica-se que o emprego do concreto reciclado com 50% e 100% de substituição dos agregados graúdos e miúdos, é viável para a fabricação de lajes pré-moldadas.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-03T16:34:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Katiane Holanda Fukamachi.pdf: 1033596 bytes, checksum: ac0af56f8d8f2b5c74d5be5aa31ddb9b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-26 / Sabe-se que a violência é considerada um problema das sociedades atuais e a tendência é que aumente cada vez mais. Exigindo estudos e medidas multidisciplinares que possam dar outras respostas, para além do endurecimento das penas, como o reconhecimento de que o problema não está apenas com o ofensor. A Justiça restaurativa surge como uma nova maneira para enfrentar esse problema e uma de suas estratégias é o círculo restaurativo. Assim, objetivo desta pesquisa é descrever e analisar os elementos estruturais dos círculos restaurativos e os fenômenos do campo grupal. De uma amostra de dois processos restaurativos que envolveram pré-círculo, círculo e o pós-círculo mediados por um facilitador. Os dados foram analisados de forma qualitativa, considerando os elementos estruturais (setting) tais como cerimônias de abertura e fechamento, bastão de fala, processo decisório consensual e pelos fenômenos do campo grupal, resistência, actings (atuações) e insights (elaborações). Assim, este trabalho mostra que na realização dos círculos restaurativos que os aspectos psicológicos fazem parte do processo e demonstram grande importância para determinar seu fracasso ou êxito, ou seja, a elaboração de um Acordo e uma resolução consensual do conflito, promovendo a reparação e responsabilização das partes envolvidas em um conflito.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-03T16:34:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rafael Erik de Menezes.pdf: 561756 bytes, checksum: f5cb063fe9c3a9d91af334a57ef99665 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-03-21 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The population and school communities have been pushing and charging the authorities of Justice Systems and Education for a coherent and effective intervention in resolving conflicts established in the school environment, since the current model of Justice, the retributive, has remedied the situation. The Restorative Justice then arises as a new way to tackle this problem and one of its strategies is the restorative circle, characterized as a group to restore relations and conflicts. This research aims to describe and analyze the structural elements of restorative circles and phenomena of the field group, performed in the school environment to intervene in conflict situations. The sample consisted of five restorative practices involving pre-circle, and the circle after circle mediated by a facilitator and two co-facilitators. The processing of data was based on the analysis of the structural elements of restorative justice (opening and closing ceremony, Cane speech, and consensual decision-making), considering such elements equal to the basic psychoanalytic setting, since this specific case, has intended to make clear to the participants of the group which is the proposed operation of the same, and a content analysis organized from predefined categories, according to psychoanalytic concepts (resistance, acting and insight). The results showed that were established structural elements (setting) conducive to meeting participants and the predominant field strengths, which resulted in the reestablishment of good fellowship in all cases analyzed. The structural elements established for the completion of the restorative circle created a safe space where participants bind positively, even with the conflict situation. It is considered important to credit the figure of the facilitator (Psychologist) part of achieving conflict resolution. Conclude that the function continent; handling and understanding of resistors, actings and insights contributed to the group field in configure cohesion rather than disintegration. Finally, it should be added that experience has shown that children and adolescents respond very well when they are invited to participate in a restorative circle there and learn to act according to the values experienced as an educational process. / A população e as comunidades escolares vêm pressionando e cobrando as autoridades dos Sistemas de Justiça e da Educação por uma intervenção coerente e efetiva na resolução de conflitos que se estabelecem no ambiente escolar, uma vez que o atual modelo de Justiça, o retributivo, não tem sanado a situação. A Justiça restaurativa surge então como uma nova maneira para enfrentar esse problema e uma de suas estratégias é o círculo restaurativo, caracterizado como um grupo para restauração das relações e dos conflitos. Esta pesquisa visa: descrever e analisar os elementos estruturais dos círculos restaurativos e os fenômenos do campo grupal em processos restaurativos realizados no ambiente escolar para intervir em situações de conflito. A amostra foi composta de cinco práticas restaurativas que envolveram pré-círculo, círculo e o pós-círculo mediados por um facilitador e dois co-facilitadores. O tratamento dos dados se deu a partir da análise dos elementos estruturais da justiça restaurativa (cerimônia de abertura e fechamento, bastão de fala, e processo decisório consensual), considerando tais elementos iguais ao setting de base psicanalítica, visto que neste caso especifico, tem como objetivo deixar claro aos participantes do grupo qual é a proposta de funcionamento do mesmo; e de uma análise de conteúdo organizada a partir de categorias pré-definidas, segundo conceitos psicanalíticos (resistência, acting/atuação e insight/elaboração). Os resultados mostraram que foram estabelecidos elementos estruturais (setting) favorável ao encontro dos participantes e que predominaram no campo aspectos positivos, o que resultou no bom reestabelecimento do convívio em todos os casos analisados. Os elementos estruturais estabelecidos para a realização do círculo restaurativo criaram um espaço seguro onde os participantes se ligaram de modo positivo, mesmo com a situação de conflito. Considera-se importante creditar a figura do facilitador (Psicólogo) parte da realização da resolução do conflito. Conclui-se que a função continente; o manejo e compreensão das resistências, actings e dos insights contribuíram para que o campo grupal configurasse em coesão ao invés da desintegração. Finalmente, cabe acrescentar que a experiência demonstrou que as crianças e adolescentes respondem muito bem quando são convidados a participar de um círculo restaurativo e ali aprendem a agir de acordo com os valores vivenciados como em um processo educativo.

Nesta pesquisa, fez-se uma abrangente reunião da literatura existente, apresentando um resumo histórico da evolução dos plásticos, enfocando o estado da arte e os avanços obtidos com o emprego desses materiais na construção civil, com função estrutural. É feita uma revisão sobre a estrutura química dos plásticos mais conhecidos, apresentando os mecanismos moleculares que provocam os fenômenos dependentes do tempo, e de que forma as suas propriedades podem ser alteradas. Este trabalho também analisa os diversos modelos de previsão do comportamento viscoelástico, além de fazer uma comparação entre os modelos de Maxwell, Kelvin-Voigt e Associado e os dados experimentais, mostrando aqueles que mais se adequam ao comportamento do material plástico. São discutidos alguns aspectos pertinentes a um Projeto de Engenharia e, posteriormente, apresentados alguns conceitos e considerações específicos a um projeto de estruturas de material plástico. Os tipos de processamento mais utilizados são apresentados e, para cada um deles, quais as aplicações a que se destinam e qual a sua influência nas características do produto final. Tratando-se do plástico reciclado, é de fundamental importância o conhecimento e o entendimento do processo de reciclagem. Além da apresentação dos tipos de reciclagem, é feita uma análise do cenário local e global do mercado dos plásticos reciclados. Ao fim deste trabalho, pôde-se concluir que o mercado dos elementos estruturais de plástico reciclado é um nicho a ser explorado e, como a pesquisa sobre o tema é ainda incipiente, há muito a ser estudado, pesquisado e, posteriormente, desenvolvido. Pode-se afirmar que a baixa rigidez do plástico reciclado frente aos materiais de construção tradicionais é a sua maior deficiência. O seu comportamento viscoelástico, dependente do tempo, e a sua sensibilidade à variação de temperatura tornam complexo o dimensionamento com esse material, desencorajando o seu emprego pelos projetistas de estruturas. Desde que sejam desenvolvidas formas de se contornar essas deficiências, como a adição de fibras, o emprego de armaduras de protensão nos elementos estruturais e a aplicação de aditivos, o emprego do plástico reciclado como elemento estrutural mostra-se não só tecnicamente viável, como bastante também promissor / This work deals with the employment of plastic materials in structures of civil construction. First, a reunion of existent literature is performed, emphasizing the state of art and the obtained advances in this area. A resume about the chemical structures of plastics is done, presented, considering the molecular mechanisms that cause the time-dependent behavior. This work also analyzes the several prediction models of viscoelasticity and compares the models of Maxwell, Kelvin-Voigt, Associated and experimental data, looking for those that best adequate with the plastic behavior. Some aspects involving an engineering project are discussed and, after, some specific concepts and ideas about plastic structures are presented. This work also considers the processing of plastics and its influence on the characteristics of manufactured product. Beyond the ways of plastic recycling, a local and global analysis of recycled plastic market are presented. It can be concluded that the recycled plastic structures market needs to be explored and as the research is novel, there is a lot to be studied, researched and, after, developed. The low stiffness is the worst characteristic of plastics and the time-dependent behavior and the temperature sensibility make the design complex, not encouraging the employment by engineers. If these problems are crossed, with fibers, additions or the pos-tension of reinforcement, the recycled plastic as structural element become technically viable and a reality in a brief future

Proteins are large biomolecules consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. They perform a vast array of functions within living organisms. In this thesis, we present analyses of different secondary structural elements (SSEs) in proteins and various methods developed for the same purpose. Using only the geometric parameters, a program for identification of SSEs has been developed, which is more sensitive to the local structural variations. An understanding of the factors that determine the length, geometry as well as location of a particular SSE in the protein is essential to fully appreciate their respective roles in protein structures. The comparative analysis of the geometry of α-helices identified by different programs showed that STRIDE assigned α-helices are more kinked. Conformation of Pro residues in α-helices has also been studied in detail. Several interesting conclusions are drawn from the comprehensive study of π-helices and PolyProline-II (PPII) helices. In the subsequent paragraphs, a brief summary of each chapter is provided. The Introduction (Chapter 1) summarizes the relevant literature, which includes both experimental as well as theoretical studies explaining the structural and functional importance of SSEs in proteins and lays down a suitable background for the subsequent chapters in the thesis. The major questions addressed and the main goals of this thesis are described to set a suitable stage for the detailed discussions. The methodologies involved are discussed in Chapter 2. These include protocol used for preparing non-redundant datasets of protein structures, various statistical methods used to test the significance of position-wise amino acid propensities and different programs used during the course of present investigations. SSEs play an important role in the folding of proteins. However, identification of these SSEs in proteins is a common yet important concern in structural biology. Chapter 3 details a new method ASSP (Assignment of Secondary Structure in Proteins), which uses only the path traversed by the Cα atoms of the consecutive residues. The algorithm is based on the premise that the protein structure can be divided into continuous or uniform stretches, which can be defined in terms of helical parameters and depending on their values, the stretches can be classified into different SSEs, viz. α, 310, π, extended β-strands and PPII and other left handed helices. The methodology was validated using an unbiased clustering of these parameters for a protein dataset containing 1008 protein chains, which advocate that there are seven well defined clusters associated with different SSEs. Apart from α-helices and extended β-strands, 310 and π-helices were also found to occur in considerable numbers. Various analyses demonstrated that the ASSP was able to discriminate the non α-helical segments from flanking α-helices, which were often identified as a part of α-helix by other algorithms. The standalone version of the program for the Linux as well as Windows operating systems is freely downloadable and the web server version is also available at http://nucleix.mbu.iisc.ernet.in/assp/index.html. Among all SSEs in proteins, α-helices are relatively well defined. However, a precise quantitative estimate of their geometrical features and identification of terminal residues is difficult. In Chapter 4, a set of major changes/ updates, implemented in the algorithm of in-house program for analysis of geometry of helices in proteins (HELANAL), has been discussed in detail. It defines the helix parameters based on the path traced by Cα atoms alone and classifies the geometry of the helices into linear, curved, kinked and unassigned type, by fitting the least square 3D line and sphere to the local helix origin points (LHOP). The geometry assigned using HELANAL-Plus is independent of the orientation of the helix in 3D space and also does not depend on the database from which it is taken. The program is made available as a webserver as well as standalone and the helices can be viewed in the JmolApplet along with the best fit helix axis, which makes HELANAL-Plus useful for analysing the inter helix interaction and packing. The utility of the webserver has been increased by incorporating the use of SSE assignment programs like ASSP, DSSP or STRIDE. Pro kinked helices and correlation with the UP and DOWN conformation of Pro were studied in more detail. HELANAL-Plus is available at http://nucleix.mbu.iisc.ernet.in/helanalplus/index.html. Linux/Unix and windows compatible executables are also available for download. The analyses of kinks in a dataset of helices indicated a correlation with the large radius of the cylinder encompassing the residue at which the kink has been observed and many a time ASSP identified that as a π-helix. The detailed analysis of π-helices was limited due to the low frequency of identification by different algorithms. ASSP identified 659 π-helices in 3582 protein chains, solved at resolution ≤ 2.5Å and validated by molprobity. Chapter 5 reports the detailed study of the functional and structural roles of π-helices along with the position-wise amino acid propensity within and around them. These helices were found to range from 5 to 18 residues in length with the average twist and rise being 85.2°±7.2° and 1.28ű0.31Å respectively. The investigation of π-helices illustrated that they occur mostly in conjunction with α-helices. The majority of π-helices, with flanking α-helices at both termini, were found to be conserved across a large number of structures within a protein family and induce local distortions in the neighbouring α-helices. The presence of a π-helical fragment leads to appropriate orientation as well as positioning of the constituent residues and hence facilitate favourable interactions and also help in proper folding of the protein chain. The comprehensive analyses of position-wise amino acid propensity within and around π-helices showed their unique preferences, which are different from those of α-helices. Additionally and most importantly, the study also brought to light the influence of π-helices on the residue preference in preceding or succeeding α-helices and vice-versa. Study of another important SSE in proteins (Chapter 6), PPII helices, was inspired by their large number of occurrence and initiated with the aim of understanding their structural and functional roles. These helices are defined as an extended, flexible left-handed helix without intra-helical H-bonds and found to occur very frequently. ASSP identifies 3597 PPII helices in 3582 protein chains. Though PPII helices occur on a much smaller scale than α-helices and β-strands, their sheer number is still more than that of π-helices. The analyses of PPII-helices revealed that almost 50% of the total helices do not contain Pro residues and show a preference for polar residues. PPII-helices were found in conjunction with major SSEs and they often connect them. These helices range from 3 to 13 residues in length with the average twist and rise being -121.2°±9.2° and 3.0ű0.1Å respectively. The analysis of various non-bonded interactions revealed the frequent presence of C-H…N and C-H…O non-bonded interactions. The analysis of the amino acid preference within and around PPII-helices showed the avoidance of aromatic residues within the helix, while preference of Gly, Asn and Asp residues in the flanking region. Detailed analyses of various functional and structural roles mediated by PPII-helices have also been carried out. Identification and analysis of non-bonded interactions within a molecule and with the surrounding molecules are an essential part of structural studies. Given the importance of these interactions, we have developed a new algorithm named MolBridge and Chapter 7 provides the detailed description about it. MolBridge is an easy to use algorithm based purely on geometric criteria that can identify all possible non-bonded interactions, such as hydrogen bond, halogen bond, cation…π, π…π and van der Waals, in small molecules as well as biomolecules. Various features available in the webserver make it more user-friendly and interactive. The Unix/Linux version of the program is freely downloadable and the web server version is available at http://nucleix.mbu.iisc.ernet.in/molbridge/index.php. The overall conclusion from the current investigation and the possible future directions are presented in Chapter 8. Our findings suggest that the path traversed by Cα atoms is enough for the identification of SSEs. We believe that the various algorithms (ASSP, HELANAL-Plus and MolBridge) developed can provide a better understanding of the finer nuances of protein secondary structures. ASSP can make an important contribution in the better understanding of comparatively less frequent structural motifs and identification of novel SSEs. The most comprehensive study of π-helices gives in-depth insight about it. The analysis of interspersed π-helices gives a comprehensive understanding of the local deformations and variations in the helical segments. Apart from studies embodied in the thesis, author has been involved in few other studies, which are provided as appendix: Appendix A describes a program RNAHelix, which can regenerate duplexes from the dinucleotide step and base pair parameters for a given double helical DNA or RNA sequence. It can be used to generate/ regenerate the duplexes with the non-canonical base pairing as well.

Nesta pesquisa, fez-se uma abrangente reunião da literatura existente, apresentando um resumo histórico da evolução dos plásticos, enfocando o estado da arte e os avanços obtidos com o emprego desses materiais na construção civil, com função estrutural. É feita uma revisão sobre a estrutura química dos plásticos mais conhecidos, apresentando os mecanismos moleculares que provocam os fenômenos dependentes do tempo, e de que forma as suas propriedades podem ser alteradas. Este trabalho também analisa os diversos modelos de previsão do comportamento viscoelástico, além de fazer uma comparação entre os modelos de Maxwell, Kelvin-Voigt e Associado e os dados experimentais, mostrando aqueles que mais se adequam ao comportamento do material plástico. São discutidos alguns aspectos pertinentes a um Projeto de Engenharia e, posteriormente, apresentados alguns conceitos e considerações específicos a um projeto de estruturas de material plástico. Os tipos de processamento mais utilizados são apresentados e, para cada um deles, quais as aplicações a que se destinam e qual a sua influência nas características do produto final. Tratando-se do plástico reciclado, é de fundamental importância o conhecimento e o entendimento do processo de reciclagem. Além da apresentação dos tipos de reciclagem, é feita uma análise do cenário local e global do mercado dos plásticos reciclados. Ao fim deste trabalho, pôde-se concluir que o mercado dos elementos estruturais de plástico reciclado é um nicho a ser explorado e, como a pesquisa sobre o tema é ainda incipiente, há muito a ser estudado, pesquisado e, posteriormente, desenvolvido. Pode-se afirmar que a baixa rigidez do plástico reciclado frente aos materiais de construção tradicionais é a sua maior deficiência. O seu comportamento viscoelástico, dependente do tempo, e a sua sensibilidade à variação de temperatura tornam complexo o dimensionamento com esse material, desencorajando o seu emprego pelos projetistas de estruturas. Desde que sejam desenvolvidas formas de se contornar essas deficiências, como a adição de fibras, o emprego de armaduras de protensão nos elementos estruturais e a aplicação de aditivos, o emprego do plástico reciclado como elemento estrutural mostra-se não só tecnicamente viável, como bastante também promissor / This work deals with the employment of plastic materials in structures of civil construction. First, a reunion of existent literature is performed, emphasizing the state of art and the obtained advances in this area. A resume about the chemical structures of plastics is done, presented, considering the molecular mechanisms that cause the time-dependent behavior. This work also analyzes the several prediction models of viscoelasticity and compares the models of Maxwell, Kelvin-Voigt, Associated and experimental data, looking for those that best adequate with the plastic behavior. Some aspects involving an engineering project are discussed and, after, some specific concepts and ideas about plastic structures are presented. This work also considers the processing of plastics and its influence on the characteristics of manufactured product. Beyond the ways of plastic recycling, a local and global analysis of recycled plastic market are presented. It can be concluded that the recycled plastic structures market needs to be explored and as the research is novel, there is a lot to be studied, researched and, after, developed. The low stiffness is the worst characteristic of plastics and the time-dependent behavior and the temperature sensibility make the design complex, not encouraging the employment by engineers. If these problems are crossed, with fibers, additions or the pos-tension of reinforcement, the recycled plastic as structural element become technically viable and a reality in a brief future

Durch die vorliegende Studie wurde der Einfluss von Strukturelementen auf das Liege- und Aggressionsverhalten von Pferden in Gruppenhaltung untersucht. Die Strukturelemente sollten Rückzugsmöglichkeiten bieten, sowie in ihrem Bereich zur Aufhebung der Individualdistanz führen und dadurch die Fläche relativ vergrößern. Für die Versuche stellte das Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach drei unabhängige Pferdegruppen mit verschiedener Herdengröße zur Verfügung, die jeweils in Einraum- Innenlaufställen gehalten wurden. Die Datenerfassung fand zwischen 23 und sieben Uhr statt. Insgesamt wurden 336 Stunden Videomaterial ausgewertet. Beim Ruheverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling-Verfahrens die Parameter Gesamtliegedauer, Dauer in Seitenlage, Dauer der Einzelphasen in Seitenlage und Abliegehäufigkeit pro Nacht erfasst. Es wurden Versuchsphasen ohne Strukturelemente und mit hängenden Planen als Strukturierung durchgeführt. Im ersten Stall kamen außerdem über einander gestapelte Strohballen zum Einsatz. Diese Art der Strukturierung stellte sich jedoch als nicht praktikabel heraus und führte im Vergleich zu den Planen zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung der Gesamtliegedauer. In Stall 1 konnte man eine tendenzielle Verbesserung der Parameter Gesamtliegedauer und Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage durch das Anbringen von Planen sehen. In Stall 3 dagegen verschlechterte sich das Ruheverhalten in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen gegenüber den Versuchsphasen ohne Struktur. Die Werte der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage nahmen signifikant ab. In Stall 2 zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Möglicherweise ist die Wirkung der Strukturelemente auf das Liegeverhalten abhängig von der Flächengröße. Stall 1 hatte bezogen auf die Leitlinien des BMELV die größte und Stall 3 die kleinste Fläche. Bei den anderen Parametern des Liegeverhaltens gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Mit Hilfe des time-sampling-Verfahrens wurde die Anzahl gleichzeitig liegender Pferde und gleichzeitig liegender Pferde in Seitenlage bestimmt. Auch hier zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Bei der Gegenüberstellung der Werte der Gesamtliegedauer und der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage mit dem Alter der Pferde (Stall 1 und Stall 3) und mit dem Integrationszeitpunkt (Stall 1) konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Beim Aggressionsverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling-Verfahrens in den Ställen 2 und 3 verschiedene Arten von Aggressionen erfasst, die dann in die drei Intensitätsgrade Low-Level-, Mid-Level- und High-Level-Aggressionen unterteilt wurden. Neben der Anzahl wurde die Dauer der verschiedenen Aggressionen bewertet. Insgesamt konnte eine positive Wirkung der Planen auf das Aggressionsverhalten beobachtet werden. Die Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen nahm in beiden Ställen tendenziell in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen ab. In Stall 3 konnte, wenn man die Aggressionen stundenweise betrachtet, ein signifikanter Unterschied festgestellt werden. Auch der Hinterhandschlag und die Aggressionen, welche das Ruheverhalten stören, verringerten sich tendenziell nach dem Anbringen von Strukturelementen. In beiden Ställen nahm die relative Häufigkeit von Mid-Level-Aggressionen nach dem Anbringen von Planen zu. Dagegen konnte bei den High-Level-Aggressionen und in Stall 3 bei den Low-Level-Aggressionen eine relative Abnahme beobachtet werden. Sowohl die Anzahl als auch die Dauer der Mid-Level-Aggressionen verringerten sich in Stall 3 stundenweise betrachtet signifikant in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen. In Stall 2 war bei den High-Level-Aggressionen sowohl bei der Dauer als auch bei der Anzahl eine signifikante Abnahme zu sehen. Wenn man das Aggressionsverhalten in Bezug zu der Fläche in den zwei Ställen betrachtet, schien diese vor allem einen Einfluss auf die High-Level-Aggressionen zu nehmen. Mit Hilfe des Rangindex der Pferde im Stall 3 wurde eine Rangordnung aufgestellt. Zwischen dem Platz der Pferde in der Rangordnung und den Parametern des Ruheverhaltens (Gesamtliegedauer, Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage) sowie dem Alter der Pferde konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Zwischen dem Rangindex und der Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen bestand dagegen ein hoch signifikanter Zusammenhang. Im Rahmen dieser Studie ist das Anbringen von Strukturelementen in Bezug auf das Aggressionsverhalten in Einraum-Innenlaufställen von Pferden zu empfehlen. Die Wirkung auf das Liegeverhalten der Pferde sollte in weiteren Studien untersucht werden.