Proteins are an important component of living organisms, composed of one or more polypeptide chains, each containing hundreds or even thousands of amino acids of 20 standard types. The structure of a protein from the sequence determines crucial functions of proteins such as initiating metabolic reactions, DNA replication, cell signaling, and transporting molecules. In the past, proteins were considered to always have a well-defined stable shape (structured proteins), however, it has recently been shown that there exist intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), which lack a fixed or ordered 3D structure, have dynamic characteristics and therefore, exist in multiple states. Based on this, we extend the mapping of protein sequence not only to a fixed stable structure but also to an ensemble of protein conformations, which help us explain the complex interaction within a cell that was otherwise obscured. The objective of this dissertation is to develop effective ab initio methods and tools for protein un/structure prediction by developing effective statistical energy function, conformational search method, and disulfide connectivity patterns predictor. The key outcomes of this dissertation research are: i) a sequence and structure-based energy function for structured proteins that includes energetic terms extracted from hydrophobic-hydrophilic properties, accessible surface area, torsion angles, and ubiquitously computed dihedral angles uPhi and uPsi, ii) an ab initio protein structure predictor that combines optimal energy function derived from sequence and structure-based properties of proteins and an effective conformational search method which includes angular rotation and segment translation strategies, iii) an SVM with RBF kernel-based framework to predict disulfide connectivity pattern, iv) a hydrophobic-hydrophilic property based energy function for unstructured proteins, and v) an ab initio conformational ensemble generator that combines energy function and conformational search method for unstructured proteins which can help understand the biological systems involving IDPs and assist in rational drugs design to cure critical diseases such as cancer or cardiovascular diseases caused by challenging states of IDPs.

This work concerns the interrelationship between thermodynamic, kinetic and structural aspects of crystal polymorphism. It is both experimental and theoretical, and limited with respect to compounds to substituted monocyclic aromatics. Two polymorphs of the compound m-aminobenzoic acid have been experimentally isolated and characterized by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction and optical microscopy. In addition, two polymorphs of the compound m-hydroxybenzoic acid have been isolated and characterized by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, high-temperature XRPD, confocal Raman, hot-stage and scanning electron microscopy. For all polymorphs, melting properties and specific heat capacity have been determined calorimetrically, and the solubility in several pure solvents measured at different temperatures with a gravimetric method. The solid-state activity (ideal solubility), and the free energy, enthalpy and entropy of fusion have been determined as functions of temperature for all solid phases through a thermodynamic analysis of multiple experimental data. It is shown that m-aminobenzoic acid is an enantiotropic system, with a stability transition point determined to be located at approximately 156°C, and that the difference in free energy at room temperature between the polymorphs is considerable. It is further shown that m-hydroxybenzoic acid is a monotropic system, with minor differences in free energy, enthalpy and entropy. 1393 primary nucleation experiments have been carried out for both compounds in different series of repeatability experiments, differing with respect to solvent, cooling rate, saturation temperature and solution preparation and pre-treatment. It is found that in the vast majority of experiments, either the stable or the metastable polymorph is obtained in the pure form, and only for a few evaluated experimental conditions does one polymorph crystallize in all experiments. The fact that the polymorphic outcome of a crystallization is the result of the interplay between relative thermodynamic stability and nucleation kinetics, and that it is vital to perform multiple experiments under identical conditions when studying nucleation of polymorphic compounds, is strongly emphasized by the results of this work. The main experimental variable which in this work has been found to affect which polymorph will preferentially crystallize is the solvent. For m-aminobenzoic acid, it is shown how a significantly metastable polymorph can be obtained by choosing a solvent in which nucleation of the stable form is sufficiently obstructed. For m-hydroxybenzoic acid, nucleation of the stable polymorph is promoted in solvents where the solubility is high. It is shown how this partly can be rationalized by analysing solubility data with respect to temperature dependence. By crystallizing solutions differing only with respect to pre-treatment and which polymorph was dissolved, it is found that the immediate thermal and structural history of a solution can have a significant effect on nucleation, affecting the predisposition for overall nucleation as well as which polymorph will preferentially crystallize. A set of polymorphic crystal structures has been compiled from the Cambridge Structural Database. It is found that statistically, about 50% crystallize in the crystallographic space group P21/c. Furthermore, it is found that crystal structures of polymorphs tend to differ significantly with respect to either hydrogen bond network or molecular conformation. Molecular mechanics based Monte Carlo simulated annealing has been used to sample different potential crystal structures corresponding to minima in potential energy with respect to structural degrees of freedom, restricted to one space group, for each of the polymorphic compounds. It is found that all simulations result in very large numbers of predicted structures. About 15% of the predicted structures have excess relative lattice energies of <=10% compared to the most stable predicted structure; a limit verified to reflect maximum lattice energy differences between experimentally observed polymorphs of similar compounds. The number of predicted structures is found to correlate to molecular weight and to the number of rotatable covalent bonds. A close study of two compounds has shown that predicted structures tend to belong to different groups defined by unique hydrogen bond networks, located in well-defined regions in energy/packing space according to the close-packing principle. It is hypothesized that kinetic effects in combination with this structural segregation might affect the number of potential structures that can be realized experimentally. The experimentally determined crystal structures of several compounds have been geometry-optimized (relaxed) to the nearest potential energy minimum using ten different combinations of common potential energy functions (force fields) and techniques for assigning nucleus-centred point charges used in the electrostatic description of the energy. Changes in structural coordinates upon relaxation have been quantified, crystal lattice energies calculated and compared with experimentally determined enthalpies of sublimation, and the energy difference before and after relaxation computed and analysed. It is found that certain combinations of force fields and charge assignment techniques work reasonably well for modelling crystal structures of small aromatics, provided that proper attention is paid to electrostatic description and to how the force field was parameterized. A comparison of energy differences for randomly packed as well as experimentally determined crystal structures before and after relaxation suggests that the potential energy function for the solid state of a small organic molecule is highly undulating with many deep, narrow and steep minima. / QC 20110527

Protein sequences contain the information in order for a protein to fold to a unique compact, three-dimensional native structure. The forces that drive protein structures to form compact folds are largely dominated by burial of hydrophobic amino acids, which results in non-specific packing of amino acid side-chains. The knob-socket model attempts to organize side-chain packing into tetrahedral packing motifs. This tetrahedral motif is characterized with a three residues on the same secondary structure forming the base of the tetrahedron packing with a side-chain from a separate secondary structure. The base of the motif is termed the socket, and the other side-chain is called the knob. Here, we focus on extending the knob-socket model to understand tertiary and quaternary structure. First, single knobs sometimes pack into more than one socket in real structures. We focus on understanding the topology and amino acid preferences of these tertiary packing surfaces. The main results from the study of tertiary packing surfaces is that they have a preferred handedness, some interactions are ancillary to the packing interaction, there are specific amino preferences for specific positions in packing surfaces, and there is no relationship between side-chain rotamer of the knob packing into the tertiary packing surface. Next, we examine the application of the knob-socket to irregular and mixed packing in protein structure. The main conclusions from these efforts show canonical packing modes between secondary structures and highlight the important of coil secondary structure in providing many of the knobs for packing. Third, we investigate protein quaternary structure with a clique analysis of side-chain interactions. We identify a possible pseudo knob-socket interaction, and compare knob-socket interactions between tertiary and quaternary structure. Lastly, we discuss the workflow used in CASP12 to predict side-chain contacts and atomic coordinates of proteins.

Proteins are molecular machines of life in the truest sense. Being the expressors of genotype, proteins have been a focus in structural biology. Since the first characterization and structure determination of protein molecule more than half a century ago1, our understanding of protein structure is improving only incrementally. While computational analysis and experimental techniques have helped scientist view the structural features of proteins, our concepts about protein folding remain at the level of simple hydrophobic interactions packing side-chain at the core of the protein. Furthermore, because the rate of genome sequencing is far more rapid than protein structure characterization, much more needs to be achieved in the field of structural biology. As a step in this direction, my dissertation research uses computational analysis and experimental techniques to elucidate the fine structural features of the tertiary packing in proteins. With these set of studies, the knowledge of the field of structural biology extends to the fine details of higher order protein structure.

L’habileté des enzymes à évoluer joue un rôle fondamental dans l'adaptation des organismes à leur environnement, leur permettant de s'adapter aux changements de température, aux nutriments disponibles ou encore à l'introduction de composés cytotoxiques. Au cours des dernières décennies, cette capacité a conduit à l'émergence rapide de mécanismes de résistance aux antibiotiques chez des bactéries pathogènes pour l’humain, notamment dans le cas de l'antibiotique synthétique triméthoprime. Dix ans après l'introduction de cet antibiotique, l'enzyme dihydrofolate réductase de type B (DfrB) a été identifiée comme conférant une résistance aux bactéries l'exprimant en catalysant par voie d’enzyme alternative la réaction inhibée par l’antibiotique. Des études structurales, cinétiques et mécanistiques de la DfrB en ont révélé la nature atypique, et suggèrent que cette enzyme est un modèle d’enzyme primitive. En particulier, son site actif unique est formé via l’interface de quatre protomères identiques. Puisque les DfrB ne sont pas apparentées sur le plan évolutif à des protéines connues et caractérisées, on ne connait pas comment elles ont évolué pour ultimement contribuer à la résistance au triméthoprime, et en particulier comment leur capacité catalytique a émergé au sein du petit domaine codé par leurs gènes. Ainsi, cette thèse vise à approfondir notre compréhension de l’évolution des enzymes en examinant spécifiquement l’évolution des DfrB et les propriétés qui ont guidé ce processus. Puisque les gènes des DfrB ont rarement été rapportés, je présente d’abord nos efforts déployés pour identifier et caractériser de manière génomique les DfrB dans les bases de données publiques. Ces efforts ont conduit à la découverte, pour la première fois, de DfrB en dehors du contexte clinique. Nous avons ensuite caractérisé, sur le plan biophysique et enzymatique, des homologues protéiques aux DfrB que nous avons identifiés dans des bases de données de protéines putatives. Nous avons démontré la capacité d’homologues identifiés dans des contextes environnementaux, non associés aux activités humaines, à catalyser la réduction du dihydrofolate de la même façon que les DfrB. Enfin, une large exploration d’homologues de séquence, suivie d'une caractérisation expérimentale et computationnelle, nous a permis d'identifier des homologues distants des DfrB, certains capables de procurer une résistance au triméthoprime, et d'autres dépourvus de cette capacité. Ces résultats nous ont permis de proposer un modèle expliquant l’émergence de l'activité catalytique au sein du domaine protéique des DfrB. En résumé, cette thèse présente une approche multidisciplinaire pour l’exploration et la caractérisation de l’espace de séquence d’une famille de protéines. Cette approche, qui comprend des analyses génomiques, enzymologiques, biophysiques et bio-informatiques, nous a permis d’identifier les caractéristiques structurales et de séquences nécessaires à la formation d’une enzyme DfrB fonctionnelle. Nous avons également proposé un modèle pour expliquer l’évolution de cette enzyme primitive. Dans l’ensemble, nos résultats suggèrent que la capacité catalytique des DfrB a évolué indépendamment de l’introduction de l’antibiotique triméthoprime, et donc que ce mécanisme de résistance existait dans l’environnement préalablement à son recrutement génomique dans un contexte clinique. Ces travaux contribuent à notre compréhension fondamentale des mécanismes sous-jacents à l’émergence de l’activité catalytique au sein d’un domaine protéique non catalytique, et informent les études des mécanismes développés par les bactéries pour proliférer en présence d’antibiotiques. / The ability of enzymes to evolve plays a fundamental role in the adaptation of organisms to their environment, allowing them to adjust to changes in temperature, available nutrients, or the introduction of cytotoxic compounds. In recent decades, this ability has led to the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in human pathogenic bacteria, particularly in the case of the synthetic antibiotic trimethoprim. Ten years after the introduction of this antibiotic, the type B dihydrofolate reductase (DfrB) was identified as conferring resistance to bacteria expressing it by providing an alternative enzyme to catalyze the reaction inhibited by the antibiotic. Structural, kinetic, and mechanistic studies of DfrB have revealed its atypical nature and suggest that this enzyme is a model of a primitive enzyme. In particular, its unique active site is formed by the interface of four identical protomers. Since DfrB enzymes are not evolutionarily related to any known and characterized proteins, it is not known how they evolved to ultimately contribute to trimethoprim resistance, and in particular how their catalytic ability arose within the small domain encoded by their genes. Thus, this thesis aims to deepen our understanding of enzyme evolution by specifically examining the evolution of DfrB and the properties that guided this process. Since DfrB genes have rarely been reported, I first present our efforts to genomically identify and characterize DfrB in public databases. These efforts led to the first discovery of DfrB genes outside the clinical context. We then biophysically and enzymatically characterized protein homologues of the DfrB we identified in putative protein databases. We demonstrated the ability of homologues identified in environmental contexts unrelated to human activities to catalyze dihydrofolate reduction in the same manner as DfrB. Finally, a broad search for sequence homologues, followed by experimental and computational characterization, allowed us to identify distant DfrB homologues, some capable of conferring resistance to trimethoprim and others lacking this ability. These results have allowed us to propose a model that explains the emergence of catalytic activity within the DfrB domain. In summary, this thesis presents a multidisciplinary approach to explore and characterize the sequence space of a protein family. This approach, which includes genomic, enzymatic, biophysical and bioinformatic analyses, has enabled us to identify the structural and sequence features necessary for the formation of a functional DfrB enzyme. We have also proposed a model to explain the evolution of this primitive enzyme. Overall, our results suggest that the catalytic capacity of DfrB evolved independently of the introduction of the antibiotic trimethoprim, and thus that this resistance mechanism existed in the environment prior to its genomic recruitment in a clinical context. This work contributes to our fundamental understanding of the mechanisms underlying the emergence of catalytic activity within a non-catalytic protein domain, and informs studies of the mechanisms developed by bacteria to proliferate in the presence of antibiotics.

Heteropolymeric O antigen (O-Ag)-capped lipopolysaccharide is the principal constituent of the Gram-negative bacterial cell surface. It is assembled via the integral inner membrane (IM) Wzx/Wzy-dependent pathway. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Wzx translocates lipid-linked anionic O-Ag subunits from the cytoplasmic to the periplasmic leaflets of the IM, where Wzy polymerizes the subunits to lengths regulated by Wzz1/2. The Wzx and Wzy IM topologies were mapped using random C-terminal-truncation fusions to PhoALacZα, which displays PhoA/LacZ activity dependent upon its subcellular localization. Twelve transmembrane segments (TMS) containing charged residues were identified for Wzx. Fourteen TMS, two sizeable cytoplasmic loops (CL), and two large periplasmic loops (PL3 and PL5 of comparable size) were characterized for Wzy. Despite Wzy PL3–PL5 sequence homology, these loops were distinguished by respective cationic and anionic charge properties. Site-directed mutagenesis identified functionally-essential Arg residues in both loops. These results led to the proposition of a “catch-and-release” mechanism for Wzy function. The abovementioned Arg residues and intra-Wzy PL3–PL5 sequence homology were conserved among phylogenetically diverse Wzy homologues, indicating widespread potential for the proposed mechanism. Unexpectedly, Wzy CL6 mutations disrupted Wzz1-mediated regulation of shorter O-Ag chains, providing the first evidence for direct Wzy–Wzz interaction. Mutagenesis studies identified functionally-important charged and aromatic TMS residues localized to either the interior vestibule or TMS bundles in a 3D homology model constructed for Wzx. Substrate-binding or energy-coupling roles were proposed for these residues, respectively. The Wzx interior was found to be cationic, consistent with translocation of anionic O-Ag subunits. To test these hypotheses, Wzx was overexpressed, purified, and reconstituted in proteoliposomes loaded with I−. Common transport coupling ions were introduced to “open” the protein and allow detection of I− flux via reconstituted Wzx. Extraliposomal changes in H+ induced I− flux, while Na+ addition had no effect, suggesting H+-dependent Wzx gating. Putative energy-coupling residue mutants demonstrated defective H+-dependent halide flux. Wzx also mediated H+ uptake as detected through fluorescence shifts from proteoliposomes loaded with pH-sensitive dye. Consequently, Wzx was proposed to function via H+-coupled antiport. In summary, this research has contributed structural and functional knowledge leading to novel mechanistic understandings for O-Ag biosynthesis in bacteria. / Bookmarks within the document have been provided for ease of access to a particular section in the body of the thesis. Each entry in the Table of Contents, List of Tables, and List of Figures has been "linked" to its respective position and as such can be clicked for direct access to the entry. Similarly, each in-text Figure or Table reference has been "linked" to its respective figure/table for direct access to the entry. / 1.) Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Frederick Banting and Charles Best Canada Graduate Scholarship doctoral award, 2.) CIHR Michael Smith Foreign Study Award, 3.) Cystic Fibrosis Canada (CFC) doctoral studentship, 4.) University of Guelph Dean's Tri-Council Scholarship, 5.) Ontario Graduate Scholarship in Science and Technology, 6.) Operating grants to Dr. Joseph S. Lam from CIHR (MOP-14687) and CFC

Zur Messung pyrelektrischer Koeffzienten wurde ein Messplatz nach einem erweiterten SHARP-GARN-Verfahren entwickelt und zur Untersuchung von Phasenumwandlungen in Pyroelektrika eingesetzt. Einerseits konnten pyroelektrische Messungen im elektrischen Feld die Pyroelektrizität einer neuen durch elektrisch angetriebene Defektmigration erzeugten Phase in Strontiumtitanat nachweisen. Andererseits gelang es, Ferroelektrizität in der Hochtemperaturphase von Poly(Vinylidenfluorid-Trifluorethylen), mittels phasenreiner Präparation der Hochtemperaturphase unterhalb der CURIEtemperatur und anschließender Polarisierung, nachzuweisen. Ferner ließen sich mittels thermisch angeregter Pyroelektrika Redoxprozesse antreiben, was durch Desinfektion von Escherichia coli Bakterien in wässriger Lösung mittels Lithiumniobat und -tantalat gezeigt wurde. Die Hypothese der Desinfektion durch reaktive Sauerstoffspezies konnte durch spektroskopisch nachgewiesene OH-Radikale - erzeugt mittels thermisch angeregter Bariumtitanatnanopartikel - belegt werden.