The Philippines is a food extractive enclave in the bust stage of export-oriented aquaculture, and this globalization agenda has had several negative impacts. Aquaculture has not expanded fish and marine foods but threatens national food security by integrating Philippine aquatic resources into the globalized food chain. Following structural adjustment policies imposed beginning in the 1980s, the Philippines shipped massive levels of animal protein to world markets, but this country has grown less food self-sufficient. During the decades that shrimp aquaculture has boomed and busted in the Philippines, the living conditions of Filipino families have steadily worsened. This study of three Panguil Bay fishing communities of Northern Mindanao demonstrates that the survival of subsistent artisan fisher households is now threatened because export-oriented producers have severely degraded the ecosystem upon which they rely. Moreover, women and children are inequitably threatened by the ecological and economic changes that have accompanied the Philippine global aquaculture agenda. In reality, capitalist commodity chains of export-oriented aquaculture externalize to households and to nature much of the true cost of producers and of ecological degradation. As a result, malnourished and impoverished Philippine fishing households subsidize global aquaculture commodity chains. While Filipino fisher households can no longer afford local food costs, their hidden inputs into capitalist commodity chains keep prices of luxury seafoods cheap in rich core countries. / Ph. D.

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Forces of development are constantly affecting rural communities in the expanding world economic system. My research with the Garifuna fishermen of Hopkins, Belize, demonstrates the systematic articulations among national export-oriented economic development strategies, rural impoverishment, and environmental degradation. Within a political ecology framework, I document the impact of a shrimp trawling program on the subsistence fishermen of Hopkins, Belize, its impact on the effective marine environment of the subsistence fishermen, and their responses to it. The data gathered for this micro-level study are based on a total of six weeks of on-site, participant observer research in Hopkins on two separate trips. Taped interviews with approximately three-quarters of the active fishermen of Hopkins, along with interviews with other Hopkins residents and government fisheries officials, fishery production and export records from three sources, (the World Bank, the Belize Department of Statistics and the Belize Department of Fisheries) and my own observations provide the documentation of the trawlers impact on the marine environment and the subsistence fishermen of Hopkins. Much of the work of other geographers on Third World development issues shows that rural communities have suffered from political, economic, environmental, and cultural factors that threaten their way of life. My work reveals the current situation in Hopkins, Belize, as part of this process. / Master of Science

Many early anthropological studies treated pastoralist populations as egalitarian, however there is considerable variation in the resources available to individual households. This thesis considers how resources influence the subsistence system of the pastoral Datoga of Lake Eyasi. The two categories of resources considered are wealth and labour. The labour available to Datoga households does not influence the herding strategies of those households. In turn, the herding strategies do not affect the dynamics of cattle herds. This is because households that are short of labour can arrange for their animals to be herded by members of different households, and there are no discernible costs associated with this. Wealth, defined by livestock holdings, can be measured either as total household wealth, or as wealth per capita. These are conceptually distinct. Among the Datoga, households that are wealthy in terms of total livestock holdings, are also wealthy in terms of wealth per capita, but not proportionally more so. Once households have about five livestock units per capita, any increase in household wealth is used to attract new people to the household, rather than to increase the wealth of existing household members. For many aspects of the production system overall household wealth and wealth per capita have a similar effect, but this is not always the case. In some instances overall household wealth can explain variation between households, whereas wealth per capita cannot. This occurs when the absolute number of animals belonging to a household is important. In terms of provisioning the household and household economics, per capita wealth explains more of the variation between households. Overall the Datoga are struggling to survive. They have been alienated from more fertile areas, and consequently they are poor, and herd productivity is low. This is due to the low reproduction rate of cattle, and the high commercial offtake rate of both cattle and small stock. The high commercial offtake rate is driven by subsistence needs and most income is used to buy grain and veterinary products. However, there is considerable variation between households, and compared to poor households, wealthy households have a comparatively low offtake rate of livestock, in terms of both mortality and sales. Consequently, they are managing to retain their livestock holdings, or in a few cases to increase the size of their herds. However, wealthy households are in the minority, and the majority of households are caught in a declining cycle of poverty, and will eventually be forced to drop out of the pastoral system.

Thesis (PhD (MedSc))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Fumonisins are carcinogenic mycotoxins which occur world-wide in maize and maize-based products intended for human consumption. Consumption of fumonisin contaminated maize as a staple diet has been associated with oesophageal and liver cancer incidence as well as neural tube defects. This study has confirmed the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil as another region where the consumption of maize contaminated with fumonisins and high oesophageal cancer incidence co-occur. Since fumonisins exert their main biochemical effect by disruption of the sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway and are implicated in cancer, the role of fumonisin B1 (FB1) in FB1–induced rat hepatocyte nodules was investigated. The current study showed that FB1 exposure activated sphingosine accumulation in the nodules which could induce the bio-active sphingosine 1-phosphate to provide a selective growth stimulus on subsequent FB1 exposure. Since the FB1-induced hepatocyte nodules were not resistant to the disruption of sphingolipid biosynthesis, it was not the mechanism whereby the altered hepatocytes escaped the mitoinhibition of FB1 and selectively proliferated into hepatocyte nodules. A study in maize subsistence farming communities investigated the sphingosine and sphinganine levels in blood and urine of participants. Fumonisin exposure was assessed in these communities based on fumonisin levels in maize that was concurrently collected from the areas where the participants resided. Subsequently fumonisin exposure was assessed in individuals based on the fumonisin levels in maize collected from each household and by acquiring weighed food records for each member of the household. It was confirmed in both these studies that communities are chronically exposed to fumonisin levels well above the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake determined by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Since the sphinganine and sphingosine levels in blood and urine of the participants exposed to various levels of fumonisin were not significantly different, the sphingoid bases and their ratios could not be established as a biomarker of fumonisin exposure. Therefore, an alternative biomarker of exposure was investigated during studies into a practical cost effective method to reduce fumonisin. The customary maize food preparation practices were assessed in a maize subsistence farming community and subsequently optimised to reduce the fumonisin levels in the maize under laboratory-controlled conditions. Implementation of this optimised and culturally acceptable intervention method of sorting and washing maize in a rural community reduced fumonisin contamination in home-grown maize by 84%. The intervention study attained a 62% reduction in fumonisin exposure based on fumonisin levels in maize-based food and consumption as assessed by 24-h dietary recall questionnaires. The alternative biomarker of fumonisin exposure, urinary FB1, was investigated during the intervention study. The FB1 urinary biomarker measured fumonisin intake at the individual level and confirmed the reduction achieved as assessed by food analysis and food intake data. The biomarker was thus well correlated with fumonisin exposure and confirmed the efficacy of the simple and culturally acceptable intervention method. Utilisation of the urinary FB1 biomarker and the customised hand-sorting and washing of maize to reduce fumonisin exposures has the potential to improve food safety and health in subsistence maize farming communities. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Fumonisien is kankerverwekkende mikotoksiene wat wêreldwyd voorkom op mielies en mielie-verwante produkte bestem vir menslike verbruik. Daar is ‘n verband tussen die voorkoms van slukderm en lewer kanker, sowel as neuraalbuisdefekte, in gemeenskappe waar fumonisien-gekontamineerde mielies die stapel voedsel is. Die Brasiliaanse Staat, Santa Catarina is uitgewys as nog 'n area waar hoë voorkoms van slukdermkanker en hoë fumonisin vlakke in mielies gesamentlik voorkom. Aangesien fumonisien verbind word met van kanker en die hoof biochemiese effek die ontwrigting van die sfingolipiedbiosintese weg is, is die rol van fumonisien B1 (FB1) in FB1-geinduseerde rot hepatosietnodules ondersoek. Die studie het getoon dat FB1 blootstelling aktiveer sfingosien ophoping in die hepatosietnodules wat moontlik die bio-aktiewe sfingosien 1-fosfaat aktiveer om op daaropvolgende FB1 blootstellings geselekteerde groei stimulasie te ondergaan. Die FB1-geïnduseerde hepatosietnodules was nie bestand teen die inhibisie van die sfingolipied biosintese nie en dus nie die meganisme waardeur die veranderde hepatosiete mito- inhibisie van FB1 vryspring, en selektief ontwikkel in hepatosietnodules nie. ‘n Studie in bestaansboerdery gemeenskappe het die sfingosien en sfinganien vlakke in bloed en uriene vergelyk met individuele fumonisien blootstelling. Laasgenoemde is gebaseer op fumonisien vlakke in gekolleekterde mielies vanuit die deelnemers se huise en aannames vanuit die literatuur. Die opvolg studie in die areas het individuele fumonisien blootstelling bepaal gebaseer op fumonisien vlakke in die mielies van elke huishouding en die inname van mielies deur die voedsel van elke individu te weeg. Albei hierdie studies het bevestig dat die gemeenskappe blootgestel is aan kroniese fumonisien vlakke wat die maksimum toelaatbare daaglikse inname wat deur die gesamentlike FAO/WHO deskundige komitee op voedsel toevoegsels vasgestel is, oorskei. Aangesien die sfingosien en sfinganien vlakke nie beduidend verskil in bloed of uriene van mense wat aan verskillende fumonisien-kontaminasie vlakke blootgestel is nie, kan die lipiedbasisse en hul verhouding nie as ‘n biologiese merker vir fumonisien blootstelling bevestig word nie. Dus is ‘n alternatiewe biologiese merker vir fumonisien blootstelling ondersoek gedurende ‘n studie oor praktiese bekostigbare maniere om fumonisin blootstelling te verlaag. Die tradisionele voedsel voorbereidingspraktyke in ‘n bestaansboerdery gemeenskap is bestudeer en onder laboratorium-gekontroleerde toestande aangepas om fumonisien vlakke in die mielies optimaal te verlaag. Die kultureel aanvaarbare intervensie metode, sortering en was van die mielies, is in ‘n bestaansboerdery gemeenskap toegepas waar ‘n 84% verlaging in fumonisien vlakke van die mielies verkry is. Die intervensie metode het ‘n 62% verlaging in fumonisien blootstelling te weeggebring deur fumonisien vlakke in die mieliegebasserde disse te meet en inname daarvan deur die deelnemers met 24-h diëetkundige vraelyste vas t e stel. Gedurende die intervensie studie is urienêre FB1, die alternatiwe biologiese merker van fumonisien blootstelling, ondersoek. Individuele fumonisien blootstelling data, bepaal met die urienêre FB1 biomerker, het goed ooreengestem met die voedsel analise en voedsel inname data en het dus die doeltreffendheid van die praktiese kultuur aanvaarbare intervensie metode bevestig. Benutting van die FB1 urienêre biologies merker en die optimale sortering en was van die mielies om die fumonisien blootstelling te verlaag het die potensiaal om voedselveiligheid en gesondheid in hierdie bestaansboerdery gemeenskappe aansienlik te verbeter.

The central question I address is whether the inclusion of a right to subsistence among human rights can be justified. The human right to subsistence is conventionally interpreted as a fundamental right to a basic living standard characterized as having access to the material means for subsistence. It is widely thought to entail duties of protection against deprivation and duties of assistance in acquiring access to the material means for subsistence (Shue 1996, Nickel, 2004, Griffin 2008). The inclusion of a right to subsistence among human rights interpreted in this way has been met with considerable resistance, particularly on the part of those who argue that fundamental rights cannot entail positive duties (Cranston 1983, Narveson 2004, O’Neill 1996, 2000, 2005). My purpose in this dissertation is to consider whether a plausible interpretation of the human right to subsistence can succeed in overcoming the most forceful and persistent objections to it. My main thesis is that a minimal interpretation of the human right to subsistence according to which it is a right not to be deprived of access to the means for subsistence provides the strongest interpretation of this right. Although the idea that the human right to subsistence correlates with negative duties is not new, discussion of these duties has been overshadowed in the literature by debate over the positive duties conventionally thought to be entailed by it. I show that the human right to subsistence interpreted as a right not to be deprived of access to the means for subsistence makes an important contribution to reasoning about the normative implications of global poverty.

The purpose of this study was to develop and field test an approach based upon soft systems methodology for assessing constraints and anxieties faced by farmers utilizing recession farming. The approach in this study was based on soft systems methodology with the intent of constructing root-definitions for recession farming systems. The field testing of the approach utilized three recession farming systems in northeast Thailand. The root-definitions obtained using this approach, characterized two of the recession farming systems as capitalistic using an intensive, high input mode of production with limited land and labor. The third system was characterize as subsistent agriculture with few inputs. It was concluded that the approach developed in this study accurately identified constraints and differences between recession farming systems. The rich picture developed from the farmer's information was adequate to construct the root-definitions. It is recommended that this approach be tested in another region, using indigenous personnel trained to conduct group interviews.

The study examined interactions between morogo plants, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Fusarium species. Morogo refers to traditional leafy vegetables that, together with maize porridge, are dominant staple foods in rural areas of the Limpopo Province such as the Dikgale Demographic Surveillance Site (DDSS). Morogo plants grow either as weeds (often among maize), occur naturally in the field or are cultivated as subsistence crops by rural communities. Botanical species of morogo plants consumed in the DDSS were determined. Colonisation of morogo plant roots by AMF and Fusarium species composition in the immediate soil environment were investigated in four of eight DDSS subsistence communities, Isolated AMF were shown to belong to the genera Acaulospora and Glomus. Twelve Fusarium species were isolated from soil among which Fusariurn verticilliodes and Fusarium proliferaturn occurred predominantly. Greenhouse pot trials were conducted to examine the effect of AMF on morogo plant growth (cowpea; Mgna unguiculata) and Fusarium proliferatum levels in soil, Interaction between plants and AMF, as well as tripartite interactions of cowpea plants, AMF and Fusarium proliferatum were investigated. Non-inoculated cowpea plants served as controls for the following inoculations of cowpea in pots: (i) Fusarium proliferatum; (ii) commercial AMF from Mycoroot (PTY) Ltd. (a mixture of selected indigenous Glomus spp referred to commercial AMF for the purpose of this study); (iii) indigenous AMF obtained from DDSS soil (referred to iocal AMF for the purpose of this study); (iv) commercial AMF plus Fusarium proliferatum; (v) local AMF plus Fusariurn proliferatum. Results showed reduced root colonization by local as well as commercial AMF when Fusarium proliferatum were present. Local AMF significantly enhanced cowpea growth while commercial AMF apparently reduced the level of Fusarium proliferatum in the rhizosphere and surrounding soil. Results suggest that AMF may have potential as biological growth enhancers and bioprotective agents against Fusarium proliferatum. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science (Water Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Kabazi II est un site de plein air, situé sur la deuxième rangée des Monts de Crimée. Après sa découverte en 1986, les investigations archéologiques effectuées entre 1987 et le milieu des années 90 ont établi que Kabazi II avait auparavant servi de lieu de chasse et d’abattage pour les groupes néanderthaliens de la région. Les études archéozoologiques antérieures (Patou-Mathis 2003, 1999, 2005, 2006a, 2006b) ont déterminé que les stratégies de subsistance des Néanderthaliens du Kabazi II étaient très spécialisées et principalement axées sur la chasse des petits groupes de Equus hydruntinus mais aussi, à l’occasion, sur la chasse d’autres espèces. Ces comportements ont persisté malgré les changements climatiques et technologiques à travers l’histoire d’occupation du site. Cette étude présente l’analyse des assemblages fauniques encore inédits des niveaux II/1,II/2-1, II/2, II/3, II/4, II/5, II/7, II/8, II/9, II/13, II/13A de Kabazi II. Nos résultats sont en accord avec ceux obtenus parles d’études antérieures ; cependant, des différences par rapport à la fonction du site ont été constatées et un lien possible avec Kabazi V, un abri sur roche tout près de Kabazi II, a été établi. On croit que la persistance des activités de subsistance des Néanderthaliens de Kabazi II pendant presque 100 000 ans de présence est due à la polyvalence des ânes asiatiques tels que Equus hydruntinus, au contexte géographique et géologique de la région ainsi qu’aux caractéristiques du site elles-mêmes. / Kabazi II is an open-air site situated within the second chain of the Crimean Mountains. Discovered in 1986, and intensively excavated from 1987 to the mid 1990’s, Kabazi II served as a kill and butchery site for Neanderthal groups in the area. Previous faunal analyses at Kabazi II (Patou-Mathis 2003, 1999, 2005, 2006a,2006b) indicate that the subsistence strategies of the Neanderthals at Kabazi II were highly specialized and were primarily focused on hunting small groups of Equus hydruntinus as well as occasional encounter-based hunting of other mammal species. This practice had apparently remained unchanged in spite of changes in lithic industry, climate, and local vegetation cover. This study presents the analysis of previously unexamined faunal assemblages from Levels II/1, II/2-1, II/2, II/3, II/4, II/5, II/7, II/8, II/9, II/13, II/13A. The results obtained here concur with those of the previous analyses however differences in the use of Kabazi II have been observed and a possible link with the nearby rock-shelter, Kabazi V has been determined. It is believed that the persistence of the hunting practices of the Neanderthals at Kabazi II throughout its nearly 100 000 year sequence of occupations is due to the versatility of wild asses such as Equus hydruntinus, the geography and geology of the study area, in addition to characteristics of Kabazi II itself.