A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg 2016. / Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when wild animals depredate crops and livestock and threaten human safety, which subsequently results in retaliatory or deliberate persecution of wildlife by farmers. The aim of my study was to establish how subsistence and commercial farmers that ranched or cultivated in the same geographic area were affected by and responded to problem animals in selected localities of north-eastern South Africa. I first conducted a global meta-analysis of the scientific literature concerning HWC, which revealed several findings. 1) Local communities contiguous with protected areas worldwide were affected by the highest number of damage-causing wildlife (49 species) compared with subsistence farmers and commercial farmers. 2) Contrary to my prediction, subsistence farmers did not experience the highest number of depredation incidences, instead, commercial farmers were more prone to HWC, possibly due to a greater research focus on commercial agri-pastoral farming. 3) Consistent with the prediction that developing countries could potentially experience regular encounters with wildlife, rural people in Africa and Asia experienced conflict with the broadest diversity of mammals. 4) South Africa offers a regional exemplar of global patterns in HWC. Subsequently, I investigated how subsistence and commercial farmers that operated concurrently in selected localities of north-eastern South Africa were affected by and managed damage-causing wildlife. In addition, I gauged the attitudes and opinions of subsistence and commercial farmers to wildlife and conservation issues, and assessed the attitudes and opinions of conservation practitioners towards people living on protected area boundaries. Finally, I investigated the movement patterns of African wild dog (wild dog) Lycaon pictus in areas where they are lethally persecuted, as a case study of HWC. To achieve these aims, I employed a combination of methods and approaches to acquire information regarding the demographic and physical attributes (such as fencing and use of irrigation) of subsistence and commercial farms, in addition to respondent attitudes and opinions that were collectively important predictors of the scale of HWC. These included semi-structured questionnaire interviews, site inspections on farms and subsistence gardens to verify farm attributes, geographic information system attitude indexes (methods to visualise the spatial distribution of respondent attitudes) and satellite or radio-collared wild dog individuals. Several variables, such as large households (≥ seven occupants per household) and environmental-related challenges (e.g. insect pests, soil erosion, and the absence of electrified fencing) exacerbated HWC, especially regarding carnivores. Maize Zea mays, was the most frequently raided crop (by primates) on both subsistence and commercial farms. Poultry and young livestock were most often depredated throughout the study sites, with caracal Caracal caracal, wild dog and leopard Panthera pardus being the main depredators. My findings supported the prediction that commercial farmers more readily shot and poisoned wildlife compared to subsistence farmers. Commercial farmers most frequently persecuted carnivores, while subsistence farmers mainly persecuted primates. Subsistence and commercial farmers held positive and negative attitudes towards wildlife for different reasons. Collectively, positive attitudes related to ecocentric values (concern for the ecosystem) such as environmental education, tourism and a willingness to learn about non-harmful damage-causing animal control, while negative attitudes pertained to stray wildlife and resource damage, specifically to crop and livestock depredation. Although conservation practitioners held positive attitudes of local human communities (relating to community-conservation oriented values), negative attitudes also existed (pertaining to a disinterest and indifference towards the socio-economic needs of local human communities and poaching). My study of wild dogs showed that although the home range of free-ranging packs intersected with lethal-controlling commercial farmers, one pack in the Waterberg, Limpopo Province, reduced potential encounters with farmers by utilising vegetation thickets as refugia. I concluded that subsistence farmers and commercial farmers were similarly affected by HWC but differed in the type of farming commodity depredated. While commercial farmers may be able to discourage depredation by using fencing and lethal control, such resources are unaffordable or unavailable to subsistence farmers. Instead, they utilised passive methods to deter wildlife (e.g. chasing, guarding fields). The loss of household food to depredation coupled with adverse environmental factors may compromise the food security of poor households. Although tensions between local human communities and conservation authorities exist, the positive attitudes and opinions of subsistence and commercial farmers towards biodiversity, as well as the reported alacrity of conservation authorities for community conservation, may provide the basis for future discussions on joint wildlife management. In the absence of such collaborations, wildlife will continue to experience conflict in farmed areas, or they might adapt by modifying their behaviour, as demonstrated in one wild dog pack. / LG2017

Thesis advisor: David Hollenbach / More than one billion people do not have access to an adequate water supply and several billion lack access to basic sanitation, which is the number one cause of diseases linked to water and water contamination. In countries such as Gambia and Haiti, people live on less than 4 liters of water per day. Cholera and dysentery, two of the more deadly water-related diseases, claim around 10 million victims each year, primarily among young children and the elderly; sadly, these diseases are easily preventable. Certain areas of the world are running out of fresh water at an alarming rate, and the global distribution of water is making it increasingly more difficult for poor people to access it. Movements to commodify water and privatize the industries that provide it are, in many cases, exacerbating this situation of scarcity and trapping poor people in a cycle of water poverty. While much research has been done on the problem of water scarcity, there is currently a void in this undertaking regarding the link between scarcity and water as a human right. Therefore, this paper seeks to address the question of whether there exists a human right to water and, if so, what obligations that entails for major market actors, such as: state governments; water corporations; and international lending institutions. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2004. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: International Studies. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

Muitos são os estudos que se têm dedicado à temática da reprodução e das famílias escravas no Brasil; poucos, porém, referem-se a regiões desprovidas de vínculos mais estreitos com a economia exportadora. Neste trabalho, que se insere no campo da demografia histórica, direcionamos nossa atenção para a aludida temática enfocando o caso de Mariana no decurso da segunda metade do século XIX. Esta localidade, situada na província de Minas Gerais, esteve, desde o declínio da produção aurífera, integrada à economia voltada para a produção de subsistência e o abastecimento do mercado interno. De início, esboçamos os principais traços definidores do perfil econômico de Mariana, bem como delineamos as características de sua população escrava, além de especular sobre as estratégias de manutenção da instituição escravista adotadas na localidade no período considerado. As informações por nós compulsadas, obtidas em especial a partir da leitura dos inventários post-mortem (nossa fonte principal), bem como mediante o recurso complementar a documentação variada (assentos de casamentos e de batismos de escravos, matrículas e registros de compra e venda de cativos), possibilitaram o exame da estrutura e das características demográficas das famílias escravas. Além disto, as fontes de que lançamos mão permitiram destacar a importância das famílias no processo de formação e ampliação dos plantéis de cativos de Mariana nas décadas derradeiras da escravidão brasileira, período marcado pela promulgação de uma série de leis condicionadas por aquele processo e que, ao mesmo tempo, nele produziram inequívocos efeitos. / Many are the studies dedicated to slave reproduction and slave families in Brazil. Only a few, though, focus on regions not engaged in export economy. This work, which belongs to the field of historical demography, studies slave reproduction and slave families in Mariana during the second half of the 19th century. Mariana, a locality in the province of Minas Gerais, turned to subsistence economy and internal market production since de decline of gold production. This work begins with a description of the main economic characteristics of Mariana and of its slave population, speculating on the strategies for maintaining slavery used in the region during that period. The structure and demographic characteristics of slave families were analyzed through information obtained in post-mortem inventories (our main source) and secondary sources such as wedding and baptism registries and records of slave purchases and sales. Additionally, those sources highlighted the importance of slave families in the process of development of slaveholdings in Mariana during the last decades of slavery in Brazil, a period marked by a legislation that was oriented to that process and has undeniably influenced it.

Well-preserved plant remains recovered from archaeological deposits at the Paisley Five-Mile Point Caves and Little Steamboat Point-1 Rockshelter in southcentral Oregon provided a rare opportunity to study ancient plant resources used by northern Great Basin indigenous groups and their ancestors with Western Stemmed technologies. Macrobotanical analysis of cultural features and vertical columns spanning the Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene epochs in the rockshelter repositories yielded thousands of seeds and charcoal fragments that can be attributed to human activities. Data generated in this analysis have provided evidence of paleoenvironments along with the diets and social behaviors of people visiting northern Great Basin rockshelters as a stopover on their seasonal subsistence rounds. The preponderance of upland shrubs and herbs in the assemblages at both archaeological sites indicates vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the rockshelters was fairly stable over the past 14,000 years. The macrobotanical data complemented local and regional pollen analyses to refine the paleoecological proxy data and address uncertainties regarding the proximity of wetland plants and pine (Pinus sp.) to the rockshelters in the past. Samples originating from Younger Dryas deposits at the Paisley Caves and Late Holocene deposits at the Paisley Caves and LSP-1 Rockshelter suggest increased visitation frequency in these periods. The diverse assemblage of cultural plant remains during these times also indicate a broad diet breadth for Great Basin foragers, which included small seeds, nuts and berries, and root vegetables. The presence of an earth oven feature dating to the Terminal Pleistocene/Early Holocene (TP/EH) in Paisley Cave 5 further demonstrates sophisticated traditional knowledge of plant foods and cooking techniques as early as 12,000 cal BP. This study also generated data chronicling the deep historical roots of traditionally valued economic plant foods. Cheno-ams, grasses (Poaceae), and tansymustards (Descurainia sp.) are well-represented in fire hearths at the Paisley Caves and LSP-1 Rockshelter through time. Analysis of a bushytailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) nest in deposits dating to the TP/EH demonstrates rodents living in the Paisley Caves routinely scavenged resources from cultural activity areas, and raised questions about whether people recognized the woodrats’ nests as a reliable resource of cached edible seeds.

Cette thèse étudie le processus du changement démographique pendant la transition des chasseurs-collecteurs aux agriculteurs sur le plateau de Lœss, qui est la région de l’origine du millet cultivé, et dans la plaine du fleuve Yangszé, qui est la région de l’origine du riz cultivé en Chine. Ce travail de recherche doctoral collecte et analyse les données paléoanthropologiques des nécropoles des deux régions en Chine, et un signal similaire est détecté. Les données archéologiques, comme la densité des sites et la densité des dates au radiocarbone, sont aussi collectées et analysées, pour vérifier ce signal démographique en Chine. Suit à notre étude, nous représentons le contexte environnemental du signal de la TDA, incluant le changement climatique et la variation du paysage. L’amélioration de l’environnement naturel pendant la transition démographique est évidente, mais elle n’est pas une cause décisive de la TDA. Ensuite, nous représentons le changement de la stratégie de subsistance de la population du Paléolithique supérieur au Néolithique dans les deux régions, et son lien de causalité réciproque avec la transition démographique. Les données archéologiques montrent que la transition démographique et le changement de la stratégie de subsistance sont suivis de façon évidente par une modification de l’habitation, et l’arrangement des villages s'est modifié graduellement aussi au fil du temps. Celles-là indiquent probablement que l’augmentation de la taille de population est une cause importante de l’évolution sociale. / In this thesis, we study the process of the demographic change during the transition from the hunters-gatherers to the farmers on the Loess Plateau, which is the region of the origin of the cultivated millet, and in the Yangtze Plain, which is the region of the origin of the cultivated rice, in China. By collecting and analyzing the paleoanthropological data from the cemeteries of prehistorical hunters-gatherers and farmers of these two regions in China, we detect a similar signal of the ADT. This signal is also confirmed by the archaeological data, such as the density of the archaeological sites and the density of the radiocarbon dates. We represent the environmental context of the signal demographic in the following study, including the climatic change and the variation of le landscape. The improvement of the natural environment during the demographic transition is obvious, but it seems that this improvement is not a factor decisive of the ADT. Then we represent the change of subsistence strategy of the population from upper Paleolithic to Neolithic in the two regions, and its relationship of reciprocal causation with the demographic transition. The archaeological data indicate that the demographic transition and the change of the subsistence strategy were evidently followed by the modification of the habitation, and the arrangement of the villages have also varied overtime. These information probably suggest that the augmentation of the size of population is one of the main causes of the social evolution.

Les efforts récents portés sur l’archéologie des périodes historiques dans la Caraïbe permettent de se pencher sur la vie quotidienne des colons européens et des populations serviles dans les Petites Antilles françaises. Les vestiges fauniques apportent un éclairage complémentaire aux données textuelles pour documenter l’adaptation de ces nouveaux arrivants à un environnement insulaire qui leur était inconnu. L’étude archéozoologique a porté sur un ensemble de 27 sites de Guadeloupe, Martinique et Saint-Martin, couvrant la période de la colonisation européenne (première moitié du XVIIe siècle) aux temps qui ont suivi l’abolition de l’esclavage. Treize habitations, douze sites urbains, un atelier production de chaux et une épave de goélette ont livré un corpus de 18 101 restes identifiés, qui témoignent de l’exploitation de 176 espèces de vertébrés et d’invertébrés. Les espèces importées, en particulier le boeuf, les caprinés (mouton et chèvre) et le cochon, indiquent que les colons ont apporté avec eux les pratiques européennes. Néanmoins, la présence de 53 espèces de poissons et de 90 espèces d’invertébrés marins indiquent que les populations coloniales ont rapidement su exploiter la richesse de leur nouvel environnement. La faible présence de la morue dans les assembles a été remarqué, contrastant avec l’importance de ce taxon suggérée par les sources historiques. / Recent efforts in the archeology of historical periods in the Caribbean allow investigating the daily life of European settlers and servile populations in the French Lesser Antilles. Faunal remains provide an additional insight to textual data to document the adaptation of these newcomers to an insular environment that was unknown to them. The archaeozoological study focused on a set of 27 sites in Guadeloupe, Martinique and Saint-Martin, covering the period of European colonization (first half of the 17th century) to the times that followed the abolition of slavery. Thirteen habitations, twelve urban sites, a lime production workshop and a schooner wreckage yielded a corpus of 18,101 identified remains, which testify to the exploitation of 176 species of vertebrates and invertebrates. Imported species, especially beef, caprines (sheep and goat) and pig, indicate that settlers brought with them European practices. Nevertheless, the presence of 53 species of fish and 90 species of marine invertebrates indicates that colonial populations have been able to exploit the richness of their new environment. The low presence of cod in the assemblages was noted, contrasting with the importance of this taxon suggested by historical sources.

The goal of agricultural training is the adoption and diffusion of introduced agriculture techniques. New subsistence agricultural techniques have been introduced mainly to the male population in many developing countries, even though most subsistence farmers are women. Therefore, an understanding of how new subsistence agricultural techniques can be introduced and adopted by women would be important to achieve. This study focuses on women's adoption of agricultural techniques. It takes place on the island of Malaita, in the Solomon Islands. The study looks at the adoption of agroforestry and several other subsistence techniques that were introduced under a joint program by Peace Corps and the Malaita Agriculture Division between 1983 and 1989. Two Peace Corps volunteers were posted in North Malaita at Malu'u from 1983 to 1986. The Malu'u volunteers lived in the village of Karu for two and one-half years while introducing and teaching new agricultural practices. Two other Peace Corps volunteers were posted at the Dala Agricultural Training Center from 1987 to 1989, and worked with the residents of the nearby village of Kakara. In 1991, a two-month survey was conducted in the areas where the Peace Corps volunteers were posted, as well as in an area that did not have any Peace Corps volunteers posted. The findings of this study indicate that adoption of new agroforestry techniques is based on several factors. Who introduced the technology, the farmer's wealth, and being able to obtain income from market vegetables and other identified factors improved a respondent's chances of adopting new agroforestry techniques.

<p>This thesis focuses on dwelling sites with hearths dating from the period 600-1900 AD, located in the coniferous forest areas of Northern Sweden. The term dwelling sites with hearths refers to sites where stone-lined hearths occur. These hearths are of a type that became very common in Northern Sweden during the first millennium after the birth of Christ.</p><p>The main aim of this study is to apply environmental archaeological methods to the investigation of dwelling sites with hearths in order to attain new information on the organisation and use of these sites, as well as to discuss and evaluate earlier strategies of settlement and subsistence. For this study, soil chemical survey and pollen analysis methods are used. Soil chemical surveys have been conducted at a total of 13 sites from the period 1000/1100-1900 AD at locations in the inland areas of the counties of Norrbotten, Västerbotten and Jämtland, while pollen analyses have been conducted at 4 sites located in the county of Norrbotten.</p><p>Interpretations of the results are related to previous archaeological research, surveys and excavations. In addition, historical and ethnographical documentation as well as historical research concerning the conditions in the area during later periods are considered.</p><p>The results show that environmental archaeological methods can provide information about settlements with hearths that is not normally possible to discern through archaeological surveys or excavations. Regarding the environmental impact at the settlement areas, there are clear differences between different dwelling sites with hearths. These differences seem to be independent of the number of hearths at the sites. Thus, it is not possible to make interpretations regarding these dwelling sites based purely on the number of hearths at the sites. The results also imply that these sites have been part of a settlement system where different types of dwelling sites were in use for shorter periods of time, for different purposes, and by a limited number of people. With the exception of the 17th century church and market place in Arvidsjaur, none of the examined dwelling sites could be interpreted as being a gathering site for a large number of people. Compared to descriptions of the conditions in the Sami area (Sa. Sápmi) during historical periods, this type of settlement pattern is comparable to the Forest Sami settlement pattern of late historical times. Moreover, soil chemical surveys conducted in areas adjacent to a number of hearths show similarities to the Sami hut (Sw. kåta). </p><p>To sum up, the use of dwelling sites with hearths shows continuity from the 7th century settlements to Sami settlements of the 20th century, with respect to the environmental impact at the dwelling sites. On the basis of these results, it is suggested that a settlement pattern and subsistence similar to that of the Forest Sami economy and settlement of late historical times are characteristic for settlements with hearths and may have occurred as early as 600 AD.</p>

This thesis focuses on dwelling sites with hearths dating from the period 600-1900 AD, located in the coniferous forest areas of Northern Sweden. The term dwelling sites with hearths refers to sites where stone-lined hearths occur. These hearths are of a type that became very common in Northern Sweden during the first millennium after the birth of Christ. The main aim of this study is to apply environmental archaeological methods to the investigation of dwelling sites with hearths in order to attain new information on the organisation and use of these sites, as well as to discuss and evaluate earlier strategies of settlement and subsistence. For this study, soil chemical survey and pollen analysis methods are used. Soil chemical surveys have been conducted at a total of 13 sites from the period 1000/1100-1900 AD at locations in the inland areas of the counties of Norrbotten, Västerbotten and Jämtland, while pollen analyses have been conducted at 4 sites located in the county of Norrbotten. Interpretations of the results are related to previous archaeological research, surveys and excavations. In addition, historical and ethnographical documentation as well as historical research concerning the conditions in the area during later periods are considered. The results show that environmental archaeological methods can provide information about settlements with hearths that is not normally possible to discern through archaeological surveys or excavations. Regarding the environmental impact at the settlement areas, there are clear differences between different dwelling sites with hearths. These differences seem to be independent of the number of hearths at the sites. Thus, it is not possible to make interpretations regarding these dwelling sites based purely on the number of hearths at the sites. The results also imply that these sites have been part of a settlement system where different types of dwelling sites were in use for shorter periods of time, for different purposes, and by a limited number of people. With the exception of the 17th century church and market place in Arvidsjaur, none of the examined dwelling sites could be interpreted as being a gathering site for a large number of people. Compared to descriptions of the conditions in the Sami area (Sa. Sápmi) during historical periods, this type of settlement pattern is comparable to the Forest Sami settlement pattern of late historical times. Moreover, soil chemical surveys conducted in areas adjacent to a number of hearths show similarities to the Sami hut (Sw. kåta). To sum up, the use of dwelling sites with hearths shows continuity from the 7th century settlements to Sami settlements of the 20th century, with respect to the environmental impact at the dwelling sites. On the basis of these results, it is suggested that a settlement pattern and subsistence similar to that of the Forest Sami economy and settlement of late historical times are characteristic for settlements with hearths and may have occurred as early as 600 AD.

The Dog Child site is a multi-component archaeological site located within Wanuskewin Heritage Park, approximately three kilometres from the City of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The site was excavated from 2004 to 2009 during the summer field season with help from the University of Saskatchewan Department of Archaeology and Anthropology field school and the Saskatchewan Archaeological Society field school. A Master of Arts thesis dealing with the first three years of excavation entitled The Dog Child Site (FbNp-24): A 5500 Year Multicomponent Site on the Northern Plains was completed by Cyr (2006).<p> A focus on the 2007 to 2009 field seasons has been undertaken in this thesis. Artifacts including projectile points and pottery recovered from the site as well as radiocarbon dates confirm the presence of six occupation levels. Five different projectile point series or complexes are associated with the six occupation levels including: Plains Side-Notched, Prairie Side-Notched, McKean series, Oxbow complex, and Mummy Cave series (Gowen). The Mummy Cave series at the site encompasses two of the occupation levels identified. Due to the rich Gowen cultural level at the site the opportunity to study this cultural occupation in more detail became the focus of the second research program.<p> The Hypsithermal is a period of increased complexity and debate on the Plains. This thesis focuses on the 7500 to 4500 years B.P. time frame during which Mummy Cave series cultural occupations are present. The archaeological remains recovered from the Gowen occupation at the Dog Child site suggest the utilization of a broader subsistence base rather than a sole focus on utilizing and consuming bison. Comparison of other sites from this time period indicates that the Dog Child site may be unique in the number of specimens and taxa represented by the excavated faunal assemblage. From this analysis a wealth of new archaeological data including insight into Hypsithermal subsistence patterns and paleoenvironmental studies can be observed.