abstract: Officials employed in the criminal justice system have a duty to serve, protect, and uphold the law. Nevertheless, previous research has found problematic drinking and illegal substance use exists among criminal justice system employees. Criminal justice employees may be more likely to use substances due to strains or due to increased access to drug. On the other hand, self-selection and screening processes may result in a pool of employees who fewer substances than the general population. Using waves 1 through 17 of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the current research examines substance use patterns of criminal justice system employees, assessing how their rate of substance use compares to a nationally representative sample, and how their substance use changes once employed with the criminal justice system, this research surveys the alcohol and illicit drug use of people who went on to work in the criminal justice system and how their substance use compares to the general population. In addition, this research compares police officer substance use to the general population. When compared to a nationally represented sample, criminal justice system employees consistently use illegal substances at lower rates. However, the prevalence of alcohol use among police officers specifically is higher when compared to the general population and increases once employed with the criminal justice system. Information from this research can be used to help agencies with employee selection procedures and employee assistance programs for current employees. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Criminology and Criminal Justice 2019

While the general link between adolescent maltreatment and adolescent substance abuse is well established, questions remain regarding factors that may explain variability in the strength of this link. This study examines whether the link between maltreatment and substance abuse varies across three categories of maltreatment: physical, sexual and emotional. It also examines gender differences and timing of abuse (past or current). This study also examines the level of parental monitoring and what effect parental monitoring has on maltreated adolescents and their use of substances. Survey data were collected from six public schools in a rural Southwestern Oregon County on experience of maltreatment (emotional, physical and sexual) and use of substances (tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs), gender differences and level of parental monitoring. Data were analyzed using t-tests and regression models. Results indicated that youth who currently experienced emotional, physical or sexual abuse were significantly more likely to use tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs than were youth who had experienced abuse in the past. They also indicated a significant interaction between gender and physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional abuse (past and present combined) in predicting illicit drug use with males using illicit drugs at a significantly higher rate than females. As predicted, a significant interaction was found between parental monitoring and maltreatment/no maltreatment in predicting drug use. Maltreated youth with low levels of parental monitoring were significantly more likely to have high levels of substance use than were maltreated youth with high levels of parental monitoring. These results give rise to the need for further research into this subject to aid counselors in helping youth, especially male youth, in substance abuse treatment. Results of this study suggest a need for substance abuse treatment counselors to educate the parents of the treatment clients to closely monitor their adolescent as a possible means of reducing substance abuse. / Graduation date: 2002

Emerging adulthood is a time of significant change where behaviors are adopted that can have significant long term effects on health. The most dramatic increases in weight are occurring among emerging adults, especially those with some college education. Emerging adults are also at an increased risk for substance use and abuse. The current study examined the relationship between BMI and substance use among college students. Participants included 703 undergraduate students at a large public U.S. university (M age=20.6, 58.7% Non-Hispanic White, 59.8% female). Students completed an online survey with items on substance use behaviors such as smoking, alcohol use, marijuana use, and binge drinking. Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana use, and binge drinking were assessed with one question asking students how many days over the past month they had used the specific substance (range 0-30 days). Binge drinking was assessed using one question: “Over the last two weeks, how many times have you had five or more drinks of alcohol at a sitting?” Responses ranged from 0 to 10 or more times. Substance use behaviors were coded to no use/any use in the past month. Body mass index was calculated through the student’s self reported height and weight. BMI was significantly related to past month tobacco use with an odds ratio of 1.06 (95% CI: 1.01-1.12). Specifically, with every one unit increase in BMI, the odds of past month tobacco use increased by 6%. However, BMI was not significantly associated with past month alcohol use, marijuana use, or binge drinking (p>.05). As BMI increases, college students’ odds of using tobacco increase. This finding is particularly problematic given that weight gain is common among undergraduate students and cigarette use has been cited as a common weight management practice among this group as well. Future research should consider the role of BMI as a factor in decreasing tobacco use. / text

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between adversity, resiliency and substance use among Manitoba First Nation girls living on reserve, ages 12 to 17 years. Five hundred and fifty girls completed an in person survey of 138 items on a variety of health and well-being issues. The results of this study indicate that the prevalence of substance use is disturbingly high among First Nation girls. A logistic regression analysis determined that age, family discord, and parental substance abuse were all significant predicators of increased substance use among First Nation girls. Family connectedness, visiting and spending time with family were protective against substance use. Surprisingly, high cultural engagement was not protective against substance use in this study, but beliefs in the importance of cultural activities were protective. In conclusion, this study showed that taking a resiliency approach to examine health behaviors among First Nation girls is beneficial and can best inform policies and programs to reduce substance use.

Specific personality characteristics have long been thought to be associated with adolescent substance abusers This study utilized the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI, Millon, 1982) to examine the personality styles, expressed concerns and behavioral correlates of adolescents.The subjects were 122 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 19 years old who were residents of an adolescent substance abuse treatment center. The MAPI was administered as a part of the initial assessment of each adolescent. The adolescents lived in areas that ranged from rural communities to midsize cities in a midwestern state.In this study, the dependent variable was the MAPI scores and the criterion variables were the following: gender, age, parent marital status, primary drug, secondary drug, drug use, treatment completion, and referral source. Additional subgroups studied were the following: 15-18 year old dependent males according to the primary drugs of alcohol or marijuana, and 15-18 year old females according to the primary drugs of alcohol and marijuana.Median base rate scores were calculated for the groups to reveal general personality profiles. Multivarite analyses of variance produced significant univariate Fs in the following groups: gender, parent marital status, and 15-18 year old dependent females by primary drug of choice. Results indicated that, as a whole, the group appeared to be fairly homogeneous in the personality characteristics revealed by the MAPI scores. The characteristics found mostoften in this sample were the following: moods that were unpredictable and erractic; attitudes that vacillated rapidly from unhappy to happy; relationships that ranged from ambiguous to belligerant, and affect that was irritable to disturbed. These adolescents also expressed considerable concern over family relationship issues. The Family Rapport scale was consistently the highest Expressed Concern scale. Other scales that were less pronounced, but frequently elevated were personal esteem, self-concept, and academic confidence. The most prominent elevation on the Behavioral Correlate scales was the Impulse Control scale.Similarities across groups on the scores of the MAPI scales was the most prominent finding. Scale scores in 15-18 year old dependent females group showed differences between alcohol users and marijuana users. Implications for treatment were discussed. / Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between adversity, resiliency and substance use among Manitoba First Nation girls living on reserve, ages 12 to 17 years. Five hundred and fifty girls completed an in person survey of 138 items on a variety of health and well-being issues. The results of this study indicate that the prevalence of substance use is disturbingly high among First Nation girls. A logistic regression analysis determined that age, family discord, and parental substance abuse were all significant predicators of increased substance use among First Nation girls. Family connectedness, visiting and spending time with family were protective against substance use. Surprisingly, high cultural engagement was not protective against substance use in this study, but beliefs in the importance of cultural activities were protective. In conclusion, this study showed that taking a resiliency approach to examine health behaviors among First Nation girls is beneficial and can best inform policies and programs to reduce substance use.

Background: Following years of inactivity, psychedelic research has rapidly expanded within clinical and therapeutic fields. In particular, magic mushrooms (psilocybin), a plant-based psychedelic, have been researched for the treatment of complex mental health and substance dependence conditions, and yielded promising results. Largely due to the historical baggage of the psychedelic movement in the 1950s-1970s, and the stigma of recreational substance use, recreational magic mushroom users have been ignored within the current psychedelic revival. This thesis addressed this gap, examining the magic mushroom recreational substance use patterns of emerging adults in Victoria, British Columbia. Theory and Methods: Using the normalization thesis as the guiding theoretical framework, this thesis used a sequential-exploratory mixed methods design. Statistical analysis of quantitative cross-sectional interviews (n=558) conducted between 2008 -2016 generated rates of use, availability, and self-rated knowledge rates of magic mushrooms users. Qualitative cross-sectional semi-structured interviews (n=20) analyzed through thematic analysis determined substance use behaviors with reference to the current social and cultural context. Participants were recreational magic mushroom users, aged 19- 24. Results: Quantitative results indicated high overall rates of lifetime and past year magic mushroom use, with the lowest reported prevalence rate of lifetime use occurring in 2014 (86%), suggesting high rates of use within the recreational substance using population. There were no statistically significant relationships between year and lifetime or past year rates magic mushroom use. Gender was statistically significantly associated with magic mushroom use, with males being more likely to use magic mushrooms. Qualitative results indicated dynamic and strategically planned magic mushroom experiences. Themes developed include: shifting understandings, optimizing experience, purpose driven use; and post-trip impact. Participants reported using for transformational, micro-dosing, and leisure purposes. Discussion: Results suggested that magic mushroom use is in the process of differentiated normalization and assimilative normalization, influenced by developmental, social and cultural forces. Recreational users report substance use practices that have not been widely reported with the substance use literature, including using small doses of magic mushrooms (i.e. micro-dosing) for self-enhancement and therapeutic purposes. Results can be applied to the current psychedelic revival in three ways: (1) directing future clinical research directions and; (2) provide lived and experience and relevancy to clinical research, which will improve applicability and; (3) re-conceptualizing the identity of a recreational substance user, which has important implications regarding stigmatization. / Graduate

Adolescent consumption of alcohol, marijuana and tobacco is a significant problem that affects youth of all demographic groups and can have lasting, damaging impacts into adulthood. Furthermore, it is a complicated issue, with many social and economic risk factors. The focal mediator for adolescent substance use, in this paper, is unsupervised time in the period immediately following school. Across the United States, millions of young people are left unsupervised between the hours of 3pm and 6pm, which elevates the risk for consumption of substances. For this reason, implementation of afterschool programming (ASP) to provide supervised and developmentally enriching activities for youth is a promising strategy for reducing substance use. Another reason for using ASPs to prevent substance use behavior is the theory of alternate reinforcers, which emphasizes the protective nature of alternative, substance free activities in reducing the motivation for consuming substances. There are many different models for afterschool programs, however the three models examined here are the Positive Youth Development (PYD), the Sequenced Active Focused Explicit (SAFE) model, and the Empowerment model. Each of these approaches emphasizes a different element of the afterschool setting, either philosophy, practices for delivery and specific program content, respectively; however, there are common features to all three. The goal of this study was to identify the strongest model for an afterschool program with the goal of reducing substance use among adolescents and to identify potential reasons for its success. Through an extensive review of literature on this topic, it became clear that there are strengths to each model, and each showed evidence for reductions in substance use behavior following program participation. The most effective ASP model, then, will likely be a combination of these three approaches. Continued research will be necessary to examine programs that combine strategies, and more resources are required to increase the scale of ASP to enhance their benefits.

The negative association between religiosity and substance abuse is well established in previous literature. Scholarly research continues to find support for both intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity functioning as protective factors against substance abuse with intrinsic religiosity’s negative correlation with substance use being more established in literature than extrinsic religiosity. This study focuses on the relationship between college student intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity, measured by the Intrinsic/Extrinsic Religiosity Scale and substance use, measured by the Texas Christian University Drug Screen-5 (TCUDS-5). The Intrinsic/Extrinsic Religiosity Scale and the TCUDS-5 are well established instruments with historically high internal consistency. We hypothesized that there was a negative correlation between religiosity scores and substance use scores among our population. Additionally, we hypothesized that intrinsic religiosity would have a stronger relationship with substance use than extrinsic religiosity would. In order to test our hypothesis, a survey was administered to undergraduate students at a university in the southeast. After cleaning the data, our total sample consisted of 386 students. Of those surveyed, 256 are female, 127 are male, and 1 classified other. The majority of the population identified as White (n = 328), followed by Black (n = 28), Hispanic (n = 23), and Asian, Native American/Pacific Islander, Multiracial, or Other (n = 7). All students received extra credit as an incentive to voluntarily complete a larger battery of measures related to habits and addiction. However, this analysis will only include the Intrinsic/Extrinsic Religiosity Scale (M = 12.019, SD = 5.55) and the TCUDS-5 (M = 0.762, SD = 2.004). A Pearson correlation was completed to determine whether there was a statistically significant relationship between religiosity and substance use in college students. All analyses were conducted using JASP. Results supported our hypothesis with findings indicating evidence for a statistically significant negative correlation between intrinsic religiosity and substance abuse (r = -.142, p = .005). Our hypothesis that extrinsic religiosity will not be as strongly related to substance use as intrinsic religiosity was supported for social extrinsic religiosity (r = -.121, p =.018), but not supported for personal extrinsic religiosity measure (r = -.15, p =.002). The results of this study contribute to the converging evidence that intrinsic religiosity is inversely related to substance use and could serve as a protective factor against problematic substance use. Those who have internalized their faith may rely on faith to cope with stress rather than use substances or restrict use due to religious beliefs. Thus, this study provides potential support for the theory that religiosity is a protective factor against substance use disorders. Future research should investigate the longitudinal impact of religiosity on substance use in college students and other populations.

Background: Despite policy and practice guidelines highlighting the need to identify and treat substance use early and concurrently with other mental health symptoms, efforts remain uncoordinated and guidelines lack specificity. Limited evidence characterizing patterns and correlates of co-occurring substance use and mental health symptoms hinders our ability to effectively address these concerns early during adolescence. This dissertation deepens our understanding of the patterns and correlates of co-occurring substance use and mental health symptoms among adolescents, how to collect relevant data in inpatient settings, and how to rigorously analyze and report findings. Methods: The first paper is a systematic review of 70 cluster-based studies examining patterns of multiple substance use among adolescents. The second examines patterns and correlates of co-occurring substance use and mental health symptoms through multilevel latent profile analysis and multilevel multinomial regression using a large, representative sample of secondary students and schools across Ontario. The third paper is a pilot study examining the feasibility, acceptability, and importance of standardized assessments of substance use and mental health symptoms in an adolescent psychiatric inpatient unit. Results: The substantive findings of this work include: 1) multiple substance use is common; 2) co-occurrence of substance use and mental health symptoms is common, though not universal; 3) substance use may be related to mental health symptom severity, comorbidity, and hospital service use; 4) school climate, belonging, and safety represent important targets for school-based interventions; and 5) adolescent psychiatric inpatient units may represent important contexts for standardized assessments, though more professional training and standardization in assessments and interventions are needed. Methodological recommendations are also presented to improve the collection, analysis, and reporting of similar work in the field. Conclusions: Collectively, this dissertation provides novel, timely, and actionable insight into adolescent substance use patterns, correlates, and potential targets for assessment and intervention efforts. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / This dissertation deepens our understanding of the patterns of co-occurring substance use and mental health concerns among adolescents. First, a review of all existing studies that explore patterns of multiple substance use among adolescents was conducted. Second, patterns of substance use and mental health symptoms were identified in secondary students and schools across Ontario. Third, the feasibility of assessing substance use and mental health symptoms using standardized approaches on an inpatient adolescent psychiatric unit was evaluated. Overall, this work suggests that substance use and mental health concerns commonly co-occur, and that schools and inpatient psychiatric units are important settings for prevention, assessment, and intervention. This work provides actionable next steps to inform assessment, prevention, and intervention efforts designed to address co-occurring substance use and mental health concerns among adolescents.