Syftet med det här examenarbetet har varit att analysera ett flerbostadshus som redan har energieffektiviserats med vanliga energieffektiviseringsåtgärder för att ytterligare installera andra energiåtgärder som är lönsamma och kan minska den inköpta energin.Bygg- och fastighetssektorns står för ungefär 40% av energianvändningen i Sverige. En stor del av denna energianvändning går det att minska genom att utföra energieffektiviseringsåtgärder på befintliga byggnader. Sverige har ett miljömål som är att nå ett nettoutsläpp år 2045 och bostadssektorn har en stor potential för att underlätta att Sverige når sitt energimål. Vanliga energieffektiviseringsåtgärder i flerbostadshus är bland annat fasad- och vindisolering, fönsterbyte och att installera mer energieffektiva ventilationssystem och belysningar. Exempelhuset har redan fått vindisolering, fasadputsning, treglasfönster, energieffektiva LED-lampor och en ny undercentral. Detta har resulterat i en specifik energianvändning som låg på ca 108 kWh/m2 år 2020. I Sverige ligger den genomsnittliga specifika energianvändningen på flerbostadshus ca 134 kWh/m2. För att få ner den specifika energianvändningen ännu mer har fyra andra energieffektiviseringsåtgärder undersökts och analyserats med avseende på sina energibesparingspotentialer och lönsamheter. De valda åtgärderna är en solvärmeanläggning, en solcellanläggning, snålspolande armaturer och en spillvattenvärmeväxlare (Ekoflow). Den specifika energianvändningen har gått ner till 90 kWh/m2 efter dessa energibesparingsåtgärder har utförts. Det visade sig att de snålspolande armaturerna, solcellanläggningen och solvärmeanläggningen är lönsamma. Däremot visade resultatet att spillvärmeväxlaren (Ekoflow) inte är lönsam. Men genom att paketera alla åtgärder har det lyckats att uppfylla lönsamhetskravet och att få en gemensam internränta som är högre än kalkylräntan. Kalkylräntan antas vara 5 % och internräntan har beräknats 6,45 %.Lönsamheten är förstås beroende på framtida energipriser såsom fjärrvärme-och elpriser. På energimarknaden kostar en kWh el ca 1,82 kr och en kWh värme ca 0,847 kr för konsumenter. Med hjälp av annuitetskalkyl har kostnaden för en kWh som alstras genom solvärmeanläggning och solcellanläggningen beräknats. För solvärme kostar 0,75 kr/kWh och för solel kostar 1 kr/kWh. Detta är fast pris under 30 år, alltså under kalkyltiden och denna energi är billigare jämfört med energin på marknaden. / The purpose of this thesis was to analyse an apartment building that has already been implemented with standard energy efficiency measures to further install other energy efficiency measures that are profitable and can reduce the purchased energy.The building sector is responsible for about 40 percent of energy use in Sweden. A large part of this energy use can be reduced by installing energy efficiency measures on existing buildings. Sweden has an environmental goal which is to reach a net emission by 2045 and the building sector has great potential to facilitate for Sweden to reach its energy goal.Common energy efficiency measures for multi-family buildings include insulation of external walls and attic insulation, window replacement, installing more energy-efficient ventilation systems and upgrading the lighting system. The example house has already received an attic insulation, facade plastering, triple-glazed windows, energy-efficient LED lamps and a district heating substation. This has resulted in a specific energy use that was 108 kWh / m2 in 2020 and in Sweden the average specific energy use is 134 kWh / m2 in apartment buildings.To reduce more the specific energy use, 4 energy efficiency measures have been investigated to be able to assess their potential of energy use reduction and profitability. These measures are a solar heating system, a photovoltaic system, Energy-efficient taps, and a wastewater heat exchanger (Ekoflow). The specific energy consumption has decreased to 90 kWh / m2 after these energy saving measures have been implemented. It turned out that the Energy-efficient taps, the photovoltaic system, and the solar heating system are profitable and Ekoflow is not profitable. But by collecting all measures in a package, it has been succeeded to fulfil the profitability requirement and to obtain a common internal rate of return which is higher than the discount rate. The discount rate is assumed to be 5% and the internal rate of return has been calculated at 6.45%.Profitability is dependent on future energy prices such as district heating and electricity prices. The market price is one kWh of electricity about 1.82 SEK and one kWh of heat costs about 0.847 SEK. Using an annuity calculation, the cost for a kWh obtained through a solar heating system and the solar cell system has been calculated. For the solar collector is calculated 0.75 SEK / kWh, and for the photo voltaic become 1 SEK / kWh. It will be a fixed price during the calculation period which is 30 years, and that means that this energy is cheaper than the energy on the market.

Master's thesis deals with principles of design of earthing of a substation 110/22 kV. Specific requirements for safety have to be fulfilled when designing power installations exceeding 1kV. The aim of this paper is to design a new earthing system for reconstructed substation 110/22kV considering valid standards. Reconstruction of a property is always more or less complicated by new orders and regulations for construction. Earthing is a part of all electric equipment, therefore it is essential for the design engineer to consider a broad spectrum of requirements, even those seemingly not related to this subject, from legislative requirements to the study of reactions of a human body to electric current. The theoretical part of this work examines different approaches to earthing system's design, and analyzes the origins and earthing standards throughout history. The correctness in consideration of effects of the environment is an often neglected factor. Defining of all types of effects of the environment is a broad field, therefore this paper only summarizes the main principles. The practical part of this paper deals with the basic design of substation's earthing system and it's verification in respect of touch voltage and step voltage according to the Czech national standard ČSN 33 3201 (Power installations exceeding 1kV a.c.) and of company's energetics' standard PNE 33 0000-1 ed.4 (Protection against electric shock in distribution network and transmission system) required by the substation's distributor. This paper later quotes and takes into consideration the requirements of other standards, more or less related to listed documents, creating an interconnected body for design and testing the earthing system.

The diploma thesis is focused on the analysis of parallel operation of Čebín and Sokolnice substations. Different variants of parallel operation are researched. A calculation of steady state by the iterative method is described in the theoretical part. The next part briefly mentions a short-circuit and dimensioning of conductors. The possibility of overloading of lines and transformers is discussed in the last chapter of the theoretical part. The current state of the situation is described in the practical part. Main goal of the practical part of the diploma thesis is to design a configuration capable to parallel operation. Also another configuration of supply of this area is designed. There must be no direct connection between Čebín and Sokolnice substations on 110kV level in this configuration. This configuration should eliminate a transit flow of power. Each configuration has to fulfill the requirements on the steady state and on short-circuit current capability. One of the last chapters is focused on the steps, that should by undertaken to prevent transit flow of power.

Svenska kraftnät is the Swedish transmission system operator, responsible for the national electrical grid with power lines of 220 kV and 400 kV, and the electrical substations of the grid. In this master thesis an old substation located in a sensitive environmental area is inspected and its environmental risks defined and assessed. From this “worst case scenario” measures are recommended, that should be applicable on other existing substations, and for new constructed substations. This thesis is limited to a more detailed analysis on how oil spill can be handled. The insulating oil is used in different machines and equipment on the substation to avoid electrical charges. The inspected substation has a special feature; a pipe system that connects wells on the substation area, water pipes from the substation house, and transformer pits to an oil-water separation house. The oil pits are made of concrete and placed under machines with large amounts of oil to capture the oil in case of a breakdown or leakage. In the oil-water separation house oil is separated from water and the clean water is sent to a lake in the vicinity. The most severe environmental risks found are the filter in the oil-water separation house and the risk of oil leakage from the open water-cooling system of the synchronous generator. In addition, there is no way to catch oil spill from current and voltage transformers and it is not known if the pipe system that transports water and oil spills is completely sealed. Finally, there is no permanent installation to catch spills from tank filling areas and Svenska kraftnät does rarely follow up the environmental work of the entrepreneurs. Svenska kraftnät is recommended to use the products and services from the companies Qlean Scandinavia AB and TTL Miljöteknik AB to attend to the noted environmental risks. Qlean Scandinavia AB offers an environmental friendly cleaning procedure with ultraclean water and sealing of concrete, which can be used for the transformer pits and oil-water separation house. They also sell profile planks as a fire-extinguishing layer for transformer pits. These are considered better and safer than the conventional stones used. The price is almost the same, however the maintenance costs are lower for the profile planks, since they are easier to clean and do not require heavy transports to landfill. They also require less space than the stones, therefore a smaller transformer pit can be built, and cost savings can be made on concrete. TTL Miljöteknik AB has products based on environmental friendly oil solidifying polymers placed in different textiles and filters. They let water and other substances pass, but react with hydrocarbons, like oil, forming a tight rubberlike mass. These installations are new to Europe, but more than 12 000 installations have been made, mainly in the United States and Australia. For the inspected substation in this thesis it is recommended to manage oil spill at each machine and to clean the pipe system. An HFF-filter should be installed in cleaned and sealed transformer pits. The filter lets water from precipitation pass, but binds oil, thanks to the solidifying polymers. The clean water is further transported through the pipe system to the oil-water separation house and from there water is pumped to the lake. Wells must be sealed and the pipes from the substation house led to a septic tank. Agent X, a type of filter mat, should be placed on the substation area to catch oil spills from current and voltage transformers, since previous breakdowns show that oil can be spread over a large area. For plants without a pipe system the water will be released outside the transformer pits. For new constructions it is suggested that transformer pits are built with a polyvinyl mat in the bottom and a filter on the sides, which will capture the oil. A concrete fundament still needs to be built to support the machine; therefore the price will almost be the same as for the conventional transformer pit in concrete, although less concrete is needed. However, with this technique the transformer pit will not require any maintenance.

Arbetet beskriver möjligheten att kunna utföra prediktivt underhåll med hjälp av information frånCOMTRADE störningsfiler. En mjukvarualgoritm som hämtar tidsförlopp för händelser som uppstårvid störningar och kan ge indikationer på ifall reläer eller strömbrytare faller utanför optimalaarbetsförhållanden har utvecklats. På detta sett kan underhållsarbete utföras vid behov vilket kanspara tid och pengar för att inte göras efter schemalagda tider.Tillsammans med uppdragsgivare från Megger och Ellevio utfördes arbetet med syfte att utvecklaen programvara som stöd för prediktivt underhåll. Programvaran kunde ta ut tidshändelser förregistrerade störningar och kunde hantera flertalet scenarion för vilka typer av information somfunnits tillgängligt ur filen. En användare har tillgång till en automatisk algoritm som gör analysav filen och ett manuellt verktyg där vidare analyser kan göras ifall utfallet från algoritmen inte ärgodtyckligt.Trender över tid är något som finns möjlighet att få ut ur algoritmen, men det kräver en större mängddataset än som varit tillgänglig under arbetet. / The work describes the opportunities to perform preventive maintenance with the help of informationfrom COMTRADE disturbance files. A software algorithm was developed which collects disturbancedata and gives indications if equipment are not working within optimal conditions.Using thisinformation preventive maintenance can be performed based on need instead of scheduling to savetime and money.Together with supervisors from involved companies a software was developed to be used as a supportfor preventive maintenance. The software can extract disturbance times and handle multiple scenariosbased on information collected from disturbance files. A user has access to a algoritm that createsautomatical analysis of the COMTRADE file and a manual tool for extensive analysis when the algoritmdoes not give proper results.Trends over time can be analysed with the algortim, this do require a larger amount of data than whatwas available during the work.

Detta arbete har undersökt påverkan av en ökad solcellsinstallation på fördelningsstationen FS25 Änge med hjälp av historiska data och antaganden. Det har även undersökts hur ett batterilagringssystem skulle kunna hjälpa nätet vid den ökade mängden solcellsinstallationer. Arbetet har riktat sig mot den dagen då solproduktion förväntas vara som högst samtidigt som övrig tid på året beaktats. Den komponent som varit huvudfokus är transformatorerna i nätet. Tre scenarion har kollat på där solcellsimplementering skett i graderna 100%, 70% och 50% av alla kunder under respektive nätstation. Det visade sig att det största problemet är i fördelningsstationen som är dimensionerad utefter sammanlagring. När det kommer till solproduktion går det inte räkna med sammanlagring då den producerar som högst för alla anläggningar samtidigt. Därefter diskuteras de möjligheter som finns för att hjälpa FS25 Änge under överbelastning där BESS implementerades men även flexmarknaden kom upp som en möjlighet. Avslutningsvis diskuterades framtida arbete som skulle behöva göras på detta ämne, där det arbetet som är mest aktuellt är att se påverkan hos elsystemet om det installerades batterier hos alla kunder och inte bara de som ligger under en överbelastad transformator. / This work has examined the impact of increased PV-implementation on distribution station FS25 Änge using historical data and assumptions. It has also examined how a battery energy storage system could assist the grid with the increased amount of PV- installations. The focus of the work has been on the day when the solar production is expected to be at its highest while considering the rest of the year. The component that has been the focus is the power transformers in the grid. Three scenarios have been examined where solar cell implementation has occurred to the degrees of 100%, 70%, and 50% of all customers at each substation, respectively. It turned out that the biggest problem is in the distribution station, which is dimensioned based on aggregated storage. When it comes to solar production, aggregated storage cannot be considered as it produces at its highest for all consumers simultaneously. Furthermore, the possibilities to assist FS25 Änge during overload were discussed, where Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) were implemented, and the flexibility local market emerged as a potential solution. Finally, future work that needs to be done on this topic was discussed, with the most relevant being to examine the impact on the electrical system if batteries were installed for all customers, not just those under an overloaded power transformer.

Atlikus literatūros apžvalgą, remiantis teoriniais ir eksperimentiniais tyrimais, įsitikinta, kad elektromagnetiniai laukai turi įtakos žmogui ir aplinkai. Elektromagnetinio lauko poveikiui daugiausiai jautri centrinė nervinė ir neuroendokrininė sistemos. Didžiausi elektromagnetinių laukų šaltiniai, gyvenamojoje ir darbo aplinkoje, yra buitiniai prietaisai, elektros perdavimo, transformavimo ir skirstomieji įrenginiai. Elektros įrengimų kuriami elektromagnetiniai laukai, erdvėje sklinda pagal 1/r3; 1/r2 ir 1/r dėsnius. Tai charakteringa tiek elektrinių, tiek magnetinių laukų verčių kitimui. Elektromagnetinių laukų parametrų vertę apsprendžia elektros įrenginių įtampa, srovė ir tiriamo taško padėtis įrenginių atžvilgiu. Įvertinant labai platų mūsų šalies energetikos tinklą, naudojamų elektros įrenginių, kuriančių elektromagnetinius laukus gyvenamoje ir darbo aplinkoje, duomenys apie tai įgauna ženklią socialinę prasmę, sudaroma galimybė prognozuoti galimas silpnų elektromagnetinių laukų poveikio reikšmes, numatyti priemones joms pašalinti. / Literary review, according to theoretical and experimental researches, it was noticed that electromagnetic fields of industrial frequency influence the human and environment. The most sensitive parts to the effect of electromagnetic fields are the nervous system and the neuroendocrine system. The biggest sources of electromagnetic fields are the domestic appliances, the installations of electricity transmission, transference and the distributing installations in residential and working places. Electromagnetic fields are generated with electric installations and spread in space by 1/r3; 1/r2 and 1/r law. It is typical of the value change of electric and magnetic fields. Parameter value of electromagnetic fields is solved with electricity installations tension, stream and the location of analyzed point in point of installations. Summing up the wide energetic net of our country, the fact of usable electric installations (which create electromagnetic fields in residential and working places) assume the marked social signification, there is posed the opportunity to forecast the available values of low electromagnetic fields effect, and to forecast means to remove it.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma proposta de integração sistêmica da automação das subestações retificadoras do sistema metrô-ferroviário brasileiro. Esta dissertação também apresenta os ganhos de confiabilidade que podem ser obtidos, caso a mesma seja implementada, e a priorização da eficiência de operação do sistema em questão. A motivação deste trabalho deve-se à necessidade de atender à perspectiva de aumento de demanda de energia elétrica nos processos de expansão e modernização deste sistema, amplamente usado pela população brasileira. A partir do estudo e análise do atual sistema de automação existente nas subestações do sistema metrô-ferroviário brasileiro, da arquitetura de hardware e software, foi possível investigar como a integração dos dados pertencentes aos sistemas de controle da subestação e do Centro de Controle Operacional CCO - pode permitir o aumento da confiabilidade e da flexibilidade de operação. Para quantificar estes ganhos de confiabilidade é apresentado o desenvolvimento do modelo de confiabilidade de Markov aplicado ao sistema de automação de subestações retificadoras. A metodologia utilizada procedeu ao levantamento e análise das ocorrências abertas nos anos de 2006, 2007 e 2008 nas subestações retificadoras do metrô de São Paulo, calculando o seu MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures). O estudo conclui que o ganho de confiabilidade é significativo no que se refere à melhoria do transporte público com a aplicação da integração da automação das subestações retificadoras. / This dissertation there presents a proposal for the integrated automation of the Brazilian subway system rectifier substations, supported on the gains of reliability which may be obtained in case it is implemented, and in the improvement of the efficiency of operation of the system open to question. The inquiry was supporting in the necessity of paying attention to the perspective of increase of demand of electric energy in the processes of expansion and modernization of this system, widely used by the Brazilian population. From the study and analysis of the current system of existent automation in the substations of the system Brazilian subway, of the architecture of hardware and software, was possible to investigate like the integration of the pertaining data to the systems of control of the substation and of the Centre of Operational Control CCO can allow the increase of the reliability and of the flexibility of operation. To quantify these profits of reliability there is presented the development of the model of reliability of Markov devoted to the system of automation of rectifying substations. The used methodology proceeded to the lifting and analysis of the incidents when they were opened in the years of 2006, 2007 and 2008 in the rectifier substations of the subway of Sao Paulo, calculating the MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures). The study ends that the profit of reliability is significant in what it refers to the improvement of public transport with the application of the integration of the automation of the rectifying substations.

Devido à mudança de paradigma originada pela evolução das redes elétricas inteligentes (Smart Grid), surgiram novos requisitos em automação de subestações de distribuição, sobretudo envolvendo operação, monitoramento, controle e proteção. Um nível mais avançado de automação é esperado na rede de distribuição com implementações do conceito de Smart Grid. O objetivo dos próximos sistemas de automação da distribuição é aperfeiçoar o uso dos recursos computacionais disponíveis, objetivando aumentar a disponibilidade do sistema elétrico, a qualidade da energia e a eficiência das concessionárias. E nessa nova realidade, a troca de informação entre os vários sistemas de informação de uma empresa do setor elétrico não é apenas desejada, mas, na maioria dos casos, necessária. Nesse contexto, se propõe uma arquitetura computacional capaz de transferir todas as informações geradas a partir da implementação de funcionalidades \"inteligentes\" na subestação, envolvendo as funções de supervisão, controle, monitoramento e proteção das subestações de distribuição, para o centro de controle da concessionária (COS), o que não está previsto nos protocolos normalmente utilizados, como DNP, ICCP, e IEC 61850. Para atingir esse objetivo é feita a investigação sobre o uso dos padrões internacionais propostos na arquitetura de referência do IEC para realizar tal integração, mostrando a necessidade de modificação nos objetos de dados definidos. Com o intuito de avaliar a viabilidade da arquitetura proposta foi desenvolvido um protótipo dentro do programa de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento (P&D) regulado pela ANEEL (Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica), em parceria com a CPFL (Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz). Nesse protótipo foram desenvolvidos módulos com funcionalidades \"inteligentes\" que promovem a migração de funções do centro de controle para a subestação. Além disso, o protótipo também implementa serviços web (Web Services) que são responsáveis pela integração da informação, tornando a troca de informação independentemente da plataforma onde os serviços são implementados. O texto contempla as anotações que refletem os passos dessa implementação do protótipo, bem como o registro dos testes exigidos pelos trabalhos, os quais compreenderam a implementação das novas funcionalidades, com a obtenção e tratamento dos dados, e seu posterior envio ao centro de controle. / Due to the paradigm shift caused by the evolution of the power grids, resulting in a new concept of Smart Grid, new requirements in automation of distribution substations emerged, especially those involving the operation, monitoring, control and protection. A more advanced level of automation is expected in the distribution network with implementations of the concepts related to Smart Grid. The goal of the next distribution automation systems is to optimize the use of available resources, intending to increase the availability of the power system, the power quality and the efficiency of the utilities. In this new context, the exchange of information between the various information systems of an electrical utility is not only desired, but in most cases, necessary. In this context, it is proposed a computational architecture capable of transferring all the information generated from the implementation of \"smart\" functions in the substation, involving supervisory, control, monitoring and protection of distribution substations, to the utility control center (COS), which is not provided for in the protocols commonly used by the utility, such as DNP, ICCP, and IEC 61850. Research on the use of international standards proposed in the IEC reference architecture to achieve such integration is also performed, revealing the necessity of modifying the defined data model. A prototype was developed in a partnership with CPFL (Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz), in order to assess the feasibility of the proposed architecture, within the R&D program regulated by ANEEL (Brazilian Electric Power Agency). Modules have been developed with the \"smart\" features that promote migration of some control center functions to the substation. In addition, the prototype also implements web services that are responsible for the data integration, with the information being exchanged regardless of the platform where the services are implemented. The text includes notes reflecting the steps of this prototype implementation, as well as the tests required to validate the model, which comprised the implementation of those new features, obtaining and processing the data, and subsequent sending to the utility control center (DMS).

Esta dissertação apresenta uma proposta de integração sistêmica da automação das subestações retificadoras do sistema metrô-ferroviário brasileiro. Esta dissertação também apresenta os ganhos de confiabilidade que podem ser obtidos, caso a mesma seja implementada, e a priorização da eficiência de operação do sistema em questão. A motivação deste trabalho deve-se à necessidade de atender à perspectiva de aumento de demanda de energia elétrica nos processos de expansão e modernização deste sistema, amplamente usado pela população brasileira. A partir do estudo e análise do atual sistema de automação existente nas subestações do sistema metrô-ferroviário brasileiro, da arquitetura de hardware e software, foi possível investigar como a integração dos dados pertencentes aos sistemas de controle da subestação e do Centro de Controle Operacional CCO - pode permitir o aumento da confiabilidade e da flexibilidade de operação. Para quantificar estes ganhos de confiabilidade é apresentado o desenvolvimento do modelo de confiabilidade de Markov aplicado ao sistema de automação de subestações retificadoras. A metodologia utilizada procedeu ao levantamento e análise das ocorrências abertas nos anos de 2006, 2007 e 2008 nas subestações retificadoras do metrô de São Paulo, calculando o seu MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures). O estudo conclui que o ganho de confiabilidade é significativo no que se refere à melhoria do transporte público com a aplicação da integração da automação das subestações retificadoras. / This dissertation there presents a proposal for the integrated automation of the Brazilian subway system rectifier substations, supported on the gains of reliability which may be obtained in case it is implemented, and in the improvement of the efficiency of operation of the system open to question. The inquiry was supporting in the necessity of paying attention to the perspective of increase of demand of electric energy in the processes of expansion and modernization of this system, widely used by the Brazilian population. From the study and analysis of the current system of existent automation in the substations of the system Brazilian subway, of the architecture of hardware and software, was possible to investigate like the integration of the pertaining data to the systems of control of the substation and of the Centre of Operational Control CCO can allow the increase of the reliability and of the flexibility of operation. To quantify these profits of reliability there is presented the development of the model of reliability of Markov devoted to the system of automation of rectifying substations. The used methodology proceeded to the lifting and analysis of the incidents when they were opened in the years of 2006, 2007 and 2008 in the rectifier substations of the subway of Sao Paulo, calculating the MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures). The study ends that the profit of reliability is significant in what it refers to the improvement of public transport with the application of the integration of the automation of the rectifying substations.