<p>In this paper the mechanical behaviour, both elastic and plastic, of single-crystal nickel-based superalloys has been investigated. A theoretic base has been established in crystal plasticity, with concern taken to the shearing rate on the slip systems. A model of the mechanical behaviour has been implemented, by using FORTRAN, as a user defined material model in three major FEM-programmes. To evaluate the model a simulated pole figure has been compared to an experimental one. These pole figures match each other very well. Yielding a realistic behaviour of the model.</p>

Inconel 738, which is a nickel base superalloy used for hot section components of aircraft and industrial turbines is difficult to fabricate and repair by fusion welding due to its susceptibility to heat affected zone (HAZ) intergranular cracking. Crack-free joining of the difficult-to-weld alloy is currently achieved by using linear friction welding (LFW). Nevertheless, oxidation along the joint during LFW is a major problem. Information about the effect of process parameters on the microstructural evolution of linear friction welded nickel base alloys is very limited. In this work, the effect of forging pressure on the microstructure of linear friction welded Inconel 738 was studied. The results as elucidated in this work showed that increased forging pressure caused strain-induced rapid solidification of metastable liquid, which resulted in complete elimination of deleterious liquid phase oxides in bonded material contrasting the generally accepted view that assumes extrusion of solid state oxides during LFW.

Turbine engine blades are subjected to extreme conditions characterized by significant and simultaneous excursions in both stress and temperature. These conditions promote thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) crack growth which can significantly reduce component design life beyond that which would be predicted from isothermal/constant load amplitude results. A thorough understanding of the thermo-mechanical fatigue crack behavior in single crystal superalloys is crucial to accurately evaluate component life to ensure reliable operations without blade fracture through the use of "retirement for cause" (RFC). This research was conducted on PWA1484, a single crystal superalloy used by Pratt & Whitney for turbine blades. Initially, an isothermal constant amplitude fatigue crack growth rate database was developed, filling a void that currently exists in published literature. Through additional experimental testing, fractography, and modeling, the effects of temperature interactions, load interactions, oxidation and secondary crystallographic orientation on the fatigue crack growth rate and the underlying mechanisms responsible were determined. As is typical in published literature, an R Ratio of 0.7 displays faster crack growth when compared to R = 0.1. The effect of temperature on crack growth rate becomes more pronounced as the crack driving force increases. In addition secondary orientation and R Ratio effects on crack growth rate were shown to increase with increasing temperature. Temperature interaction testing between 649°C and 982°C showed that for both R = 0.1 and 0.7, retardation is present at larger alternating cycle blocks and acceleration is present at smaller alternating cycle blocks. This transition from acceleration to retardation occurs between 10 and 20 alternating cycles for R = 0.1 and around 20 alternating cycles for R = 0.7. Load interaction testing showed that when the crack driving force is near KIC the overload size greatly influences whether acceleration or retardation will occur at 982°C. Semi-realistic spectrum testing demonstrated the extreme sensitivity that relative loading levels play on fatigue crack growth life while also calling into question the importance of dwell times. A crack trajectory modeling approach using blade primary and secondary orientations was used to determine whether crack propagation will occur on crystallographic planes or normal to the applied load. Crack plane determination using a scanning electron microscope enabled verification of the crack trajectory modeling approach. The isothermal constant amplitude fatigue crack growth results fills a much needed void in currently available data. While the temperature and load interaction fatigue crack growth results reveal the acceleration and retardation that is present in cracks growing in single crystal turbine blade materials under TMF conditions. This research also provides a deeper understanding of the failure and deformation mechanisms responsible for crack growth during thermo-mechanical fatigue. The crack path trajectory modeling will help enable "Retirement for Cause" to be used for critical turbine engine components, a drastic improvement over the standard "safe-life" calculations while also reducing the risk of catastrophic failure due to "chunk liberation" as a function of time. Leveraging off this work there exists the possibility of developing a "local approach" to define a crack growth forcing function in single crystal superalloys.

Inconel 738, which is a nickel base superalloy used for hot section components of aircraft and industrial turbines is difficult to fabricate and repair by fusion welding due to its susceptibility to heat affected zone (HAZ) intergranular cracking. Crack-free joining of the difficult-to-weld alloy is currently achieved by using linear friction welding (LFW). Nevertheless, oxidation along the joint during LFW is a major problem. Information about the effect of process parameters on the microstructural evolution of linear friction welded nickel base alloys is very limited. In this work, the effect of forging pressure on the microstructure of linear friction welded Inconel 738 was studied. The results as elucidated in this work showed that increased forging pressure caused strain-induced rapid solidification of metastable liquid, which resulted in complete elimination of deleterious liquid phase oxides in bonded material contrasting the generally accepted view that assumes extrusion of solid state oxides during LFW.

Directionally solidified (DS) nickel-base superalloys are used in high temperature gas turbine engines because of their high yield strength at extreme temperatures and strong low cycle fatigue (LCF) and creep resistance. Costly inspecting, servicing, and replacing of damaged components has precipitated much interest in developing models to better predict service life. Turbine blade life modeling is complicated by the presence of notches, dwells, high temperatures and temperature gradients, and highly anisotropic material behavior. This work seeks to develop approaches for predicting the life of hot sections of gas turbines blade material CM247LC DS subjected to LCF, dwells, and stress concentrations while taking into consideration orientation and notch effects. Experiments were conducted on an axial servo-hydraulic MTS® testing machine. High temperature LCF tests were performed on smooth and notched round-bar specimens in both longitudinal and transverse orientations with and without dwells. Experimental results were used to develop and validate an analytical life prediction model. An analytical model based on a multiaxial Neuber approach predicts the local stress-strain response at a notch and other geometric stress concentrations. This approach captures anisotropy through a multiaxial generalization of the Ramberg-Osgood relation using a Hill's type criterion. The elastic notch response is determined using an anisotropic elastic finite element analysis (FEA) of the notch. The limitations of the simpler analytical life-modeling method are discussed in light of FEA using an anisotropic elastic-crystal viscoplastic material model. This life-modeling method provides a quick alternative to time demanding elastic-plastic FEA allowing engineers more design iterations to improve reliability and service life.

In this dissertation the work done in the projects KME-410/502 will be presented.The overall objective in these projects is to evaluate and develop tools for designingagainst fatigue in single-crystal nickel-base superalloys in gas turbines. Experimentshave been done on single-crystal nickel-base superalloy specimens in order toinvestigate the mechanical and fatigue behaviour of the material. The constitutivebehaviour has been modelled and veried by FE-simulations of the experiments.Furthermore, the microstructural degradation during long-time ageing has been investigatedwith respect to the material's yield limit. The eect has been includedin the constitutive model by lowering the resulting yield limit. Moreover, the fatiguecrack initiation of a component has been analysed and modelled by using acritical plane approach in combination with a critical distance method. Finally, asan application, the derived single-crystal model was applied to all the individualgrains in a coarse grained specimen to predict the dispersion in fatigue crack initiationlife depending on random grain distributions. This thesis is divided into three parts. In the rst part the theoretical framework,based upon continuum mechanics, crystal plasticity, the critical plane approachand the critical distance method, is derived. This framework is then used in thesecond part, which consists of six included papers. Finally, in the third part, detailsof the used numerical procedures are presented.

Les propriétés en fatigue à grand et très grand nombre de cycles des superalliages base Ni monogranulaires ont été étudiées à 1000°C sous trois fréquences (0.5, 70 et 20000 Hz) et quatre rapports de charge (-1, 0.05, 0.3, 0.8), en prenant le CMSX-4 comme alliage de référence.Dans un premier temps, le régime de fatigue à très grand nombre de cycles a été étudié à 20 kHz. A R = -1, la fissure fatale s’amorce à chaque fois depuis un pore de fonderie en interne et se propage suivant les plans cristallographiques {111}, pour des durées de vie entre 106 et 109 cycles, et ce malgré la présence d’autres défauts tels que les eutectiques ou carbures. Le procédé d’élaboration, en impactant directement la taille des pores de fonderie, contrôle la durée de vie alors que la microstructure a peu d’influence. A R = 0.8, le fluage contrôle la durée de vie en fatigue gigacyclique, et rend alors ce régime sensible à la microstructure et à la composition chimique de l’alliage. Les essais à très longues durées de vie (> 109 cycles) ont également été caractérisés et ont permis de proposer un mécanisme d’amorçage dans ce régime de fatigue.Dans un second temps, l’influence de la fréquence d’essai sur les endommagements dépendants du temps tels que l’oxydation et le fluage, et leur interaction, a été étudiée. A R ≤ 0, diminuer la fréquence d’essai revient à inhiber la criticité des défauts internes en favorisant l’endommagement en surface par oxydation. A R ≥ 0.8, le fluage est l’endommagement conduisant à la rupture des éprouvettes quelle que soit la fréquence de sollicitation ou la durée de vie. Les rapports de charge intermédiaires présentent une interaction importante entre les endommagements en oxydation, fatigue et fluage en fonction de la fréquence de sollicitation et des conditions de chargement. A partir de ces observations, un modèle d’endommagement a été proposé afin de prédire la durée de vie du CMSX-4 et présente des résultats satisfaisants par rapport aux données expérimentales. / High and very high cycle fatigue properties of Ni-based single crystal superalloys have been studied at 1000°C using three frequencies (0.5, 70, 20000 Hz), four stress ratios (-1, 0.05, 0.3, 0.8) and CMSX-4 alloy as reference.Firstly, the very high cycle fatigue regime (VHCF) has been studied at 20 kHz. At R = -1, fatal crack always initiates between 106 and 109 cycles from an internal casting pore et then propagates in a crystallographic mode, despite the presence of other metallurgical defects such as eutectics and carbides. The elaboration process controls VHCF life under these conditions as it directly affects casting pore size, whereas microstructure has no relevant influence. At R = 0.8, creep controls VHCF life and makes this regime sensitive to microstructure and alloy’s chemical composition. Long term tests (> 109 cycles) have also been characterized and have enabled to propose a crack initiation mechanism operating in the VHCF regime.Secondly, the influence of frequency on time-dependent damages such as oxidation and creep, and their interaction, has been studied. At R ≤ 0, reducing frequency inhibits the harmfulness of internal critical defects by promoting oxidation surface damage. At R ≥ 0.8, creep damage leads to specimens rupture for all frequency test and loading conditions. Intermediate stress ratios present an important interaction between oxidation, fatigue and creep damage according to the frequency and loading conditions. Based on these observations, a damage model that predicts CMSX-4 fatigue life has been proposed and presents satisfying results in comparison to experimental data.

abstract: Structural stability and performance of structural materials is important for energy production, whether renewable or non renewable, to have uninterrupted energy supply, that is economically feasible and safe. High temperature metallic materials used in the turbines of AORA, an Israel-based clean energy producer, often experience high temperature, high stress and foreign object damage (FOD). In this study, efforts were made to study the effects of FOD on the fatigue life of these materials and to understand their failure mechanisms. The foreign objects/debris recovered by AORA were characterized using Powder X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) to identify composition and phases. To perform foreign object damage experiment a gas gun was built and results of XRD and EDS were used to select particles to mimic FOD in lab experiments for two materials of interest to AORA: Hastelloy X and SS 347. Electron Backscattering Diffraction, hardness and tensile tests were also performed to characterize microstructure and mechanical properties. Fatigue tests using at high temperature were performed on dog bone samples with and without FOD and the fracture surfaces and well as the regions affected by FOD were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to understand the failure mechanism. The findings of these study indicate that FOD is causing multiple secondary cracks at and around the impact sites, which can potentially grow to coalesce and remove pieces of material, and the multisite damage could also lead to lower fatigue lives, despite the fact that the FOD site was not always the most favorable for initiation of the fatal fatigue crack. It was also seen by the effect of FOD on fatigue life that SS 347 is more susceptible to FOD than Hastelloy X. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Materials Science and Engineering 2016

Le sujet de thèse de doctorat s’inscrit dans le cadre d’un projet de recherche collaboratif entre l’Institut FEMTO-ST et le groupe SAFRAN/SNECMA. Une partie des travaux de cette thèse concerne les caractérisations thermo-physiques de polymères chargés pour différentes nuances et granulométries de poudres de superalliage destinés à être mis en forme par le procédé de Moulage par Injection de Poudre. Pour ces travaux de thèse de doctorat, trois nuances de polymères chargés composé de poudres de superalliages ont été investiguées. Deux nuances sont composées de poudres utilisées par Snecma en réparation (René 80®/Amdry D15® et RBD61) et un autre est composée de poudre d’Inconel 718. Différentes caractérisations ont été réalisées et ont permis d’optimiser le développement de mélanges chargés conduisant à l’élaboration de matériaux homogènes et injectables tout en possédant des taux de charge en poudres les plus élevés possible.Les résultats de ces travaux sont ensuite utilisés afin d’identifier différents termes présents dans les modèles analytiques de rhéologie usuels. Le développement de modèles de rhéologies spécifiques a été réalisé en incorporant aux lois rhéologiques usuelles différents termes dépendant de la surface spécifique, de la viscosité des liants employés au sein de la formulation. Le développement de ces modèles de viscosité de plus en plus complets permet d’améliorer les lois de comportements et de mieux décrire le comportement rhéologique de polymères chargés. Enfin, une simulation de l’étape de moulage par injection d’un composant aéronautique a été réalisée à l’aide du logiciel Moldflow© pour la nuance de René 80®/Amdry D15®. / The works presented in this paper were realized in collaboration between the mechanical department of FEMTO-ST Institute and the company SAFRAN/SNECMA. A part of the works of this thesis focused the thermo-physical characterizations of loaded polymers that is mixtures based of thermoplastic binders and metallic powders suitable be shaped by powder injection molding process.For this work, three different loaded mixtures composed of superalloy powder were investigated.Two were supplied by SAFRAN/SNECMA used to repair (Rene80®/AmdryD15® and RBD61) and another is composed of Inconel 718 powder. Characterizations were to carry out to optimize the development of loaded polymers and to obtain homogenous materials with high solid fraction. Then, the data were used to identified parameters of usual rheological laws. The development of specific rheological models were realized by including different parameters related to the specific surface area, binder viscosities used in the formulation. The development of these models increasingly exhaustive allows the improvement of behavior laws and to better describe the rheological behavior of superalloy-loaded polymers. Finally, a simulation of the injection molding stage of a aeronautical component was realized in the Moldflow© software for the Rene80®/AmdryD15® loaded polymer.

Cette étude a pour objectif de modéliser la durée de vie d'un revêtement NiAlPt déposé sur un substrat monocristallin base Ni (AM1). De façon standard, la durée de vie des revêtements est évaluée en mesurant l'évolution de la masse d'un échantillon revêtu au cours d'un essai de cyclage thermique. Des modèles de durée de vie fondés sur ces mesures sont très bien adaptés aux revêtements pour lesquels la couche d'oxyde est peu adhérente, ce qui n'est pas le cas pour le revêtement NiAlPt objet de cette étude. D'autre part, il est impossible d'obtenir des courbes de gain de masse pour des conditions de chargement thermo-mécaniques complexes, tels que ceux supportés par une aube aéronautique en service. C'est pourquoi nous avons choisi d'étudier l'évolution de la microstructure du revêtement au cours du vieillissement et d'établir des liens entre cette évolution microstructurale et la durée de vie évaluée sur des essais de cyclage thermiques.La base d'essai réalisée regroupe des essais d'oxydation cycliques à différentes températures et fréquences de cyclage ainsi que des essais de fatigue mécano-thermique, en phase, hors-phase et complexes. Pour chaque condition testée, des essais interrompus ont permis d'estimer les évolutions microstructurales en fonction des conditions de chargement thermo-mécanique jusqu'à des temps relativement longs. Nous avons en particulier estimé les évolutions de rugosité de surface, d'épaisseur de la couche d'interdiffusion entre le revêtement et le superalliage, et la fraction de phase γ' transformée. Ces deux paramètres sont corrélés respectivement au maximum de la courbe de gain de masse et au nombre de cycle nécessaire pour atteindre un gain de masse nul, pour le système étudié en oxydation cyclique.Nous avons modélisé l'évolution de l'épaisseur de la couche d'interdiffusion en fonction des conditions de chargement thermo-mécaniques. La transformation de phase a été modélisée à l'aide d'un bilan de flux de matière dans le revêtement fonction de l'intégrité de la couche d'oxyde de croissance et de la rugosité de surface. Ces deux modèles ont permis d'estimer l'évolution microstructurale du revêtement en fonction des différents paramètres de chargement thermo-mécanique, et donc d'estimer une durée de vie basée sur ces critères. / This study aims at modeling the life time of a NiAlPt coating used at high temperature and deposited on a single crystal nickel-based superalloy AM1. Usually, the life time of coatings is estimated through the evaluation of the mass of coated samples (Net Mass Gain curves), during thermal cycling tests. Existing models are very suitable to describe the evolution of coating in the case of poorly adherent oxide layer. Unfortunately, this is not the case of the studied NiAlPt coating. Moreover, it is impossible to obtain experimentally the Net Mass gain curve of a sample subjected to thermo-mechanical loading, experienced by engine components. Thus, the strategy adopted in this study is to correlate the microstructure of the coating with its life time, evaluated during thermal cycling.The experimental work included cyclic oxidation tests at different temperatures, cycling frequencies and in-phase, out-of-phase and complex thermo-mechanical loadings. For each of the tested condition, interrupted tests allowed the characterization of the microstructure evolution as a function of the loading parameters up to relatively long ageing time. Especially, the roughness of the coating surface has been investigated as well as the interdiffusion zone (IDZ) thickness evolution or the fraction of γ' phase transformed within the coating. These two last parameters where found to be correlated respectively to the time needed to reach the maximum of the Net Mass Gain curve and the time needed to reach the zero mass gain of the curve, under thermal cycling conditions.A model for the interdiffusion (IDZ) thickness evolution was proposed as a function of the loading parameters. The phase transformation in the coating was modeled using a mass balance condition for the aluminum in the coating, including roughness of the surface and oxide scale integrity considerations. This model based on original criteria allowed the estimation of the life time of a coated turbine blade under service conditions.