Increased reactive nitrogen from human activities negatively affects surface water (SW) quality. The hyporheic zone, where SW and groundwater interact, possesses unique biogeochemical conditions that can attenuate contaminants (e.g., denitrification), including mixing-dependent reactions that require components from both water sources. Previous research has explored mixing-dependent denitrification in the hyporheic zone but did not address the effects of varying SW depth as would occur from storms, tides, dam operation, and varying seasons. We simulated steady and unsteady hyporheic flow and transport through a riverbed dune using MODFLOW and SEAM3D, and varied SW depth, degree of sediment heterogeneity, amplitude and frequency of sinusoidal fluctuations, among others to determine these effects. We found that increasing steady state surface water depth from 0.1 to 1.0 m increased non-mixing dependent aerobic respiration by 270% and mixing-dependent denitrification by 78% in homogeneous sediment. Heterogeneous hydraulic conductivity fields yielded similar results, with increases in consumption due to variation in correlation length and variance of less than 5%. Daily SW fluctuation, including variation of amplitude, period, and sinusoidal versus instantaneous changes had significantly less impact than longer-term trends in SW depth. There is potential for the hyporheic zone to attenuate NO3- in upwelling groundwater plumes. Restoration efforts may be able to maximize the potential for mixing-dependent reactions in the hyporheic zone by increasing residence times. / Master of Science / Increased nitrogen in runoff from human activities negatively affects surface water quality. The hyporheic zone is where surface water and groundwater interact, and the mixing between the waters can help to this nitrogen to undergo reaction (denitrification), potentially stopping the contaminant from spreading. Previous research has explored this idea, but has not addressed the impact of varying surface water depth, as would realistically occur due to storms, tides, dam operation, and varying seasons. We simulated both constant and fluctuating surface water conditions on a riverbed dune to see the effects on hyporheic flow and denitrification. Test variables included the surface water depth, the degree of sediment heterogeneity, the amplitude and frequency of surface water fluctuations. We found that increasing the steady-state surface water depth had the most dramatic increase on the amount of reaction undergone. This trend was also seen in heterogeneous sediment. Any daily-scale surface water fluctuations, including runs that varied the amplitude, period, and sinusoidal vs instantaneous changes in surface water depth, had significantly less impact than longer-term trends in surface water depth.

Of the factors that determine development potential in a given geographic area, the availability of water for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes is a primary indication of prospective growth. Governmental bodies at the regional, state and federal levels often need to identify water supply availability in order to identify growth potential. To address this need, a procedure for the preliminary assessment of water supply availability has been developed that can potentially be applied to any geographic area in the United States. The procedure uses the USGS demand cataloging unit as the basic planning area, with supply estimates from streamflow parameters at USGS gage locations and demand estimates from USGS demand reports. By comparing known supply and demand estimates in a base year, an overview of water supply availability in the region can be determined. With supply and demand data in a base year, projections of future water supply availability can then be made. Detailed projection of future water demand must account for changes in the amount of water use activities and the rates of water use within those activities, but a simplified procedure is applied here. Total offstream water use is averaged over the population in the base year to determine per-capita offstream use, which is assumed to remain constant in the future in this preliminary assessment procedure. Population is then projected and demand is forecast as a function of the projected population. The supply quantity is projected assuming each flow parameter derived from the historical record will remain constant in the future year. By comparing projected supply and demand estimates, water supply availability in future years can be anticipated in the planning area. / Master of Science

Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems (HVAC) are not only one of the most energy consuming components in buildings but also contribute to green house gas emissions. As a result often environmental design strategies are focused on the performance of these systems. New HVAC technologies such as Geothermal Heat Pump systems have relatively high performance efficiencies when compared to typical systems and therefore could be part of whole-building performance design strategies. In collaboration with the Virginia Tech Corporate Research Center, Inc., this research studies the energy consumption and cost benefits of the Geothermal Heat Pump System that has been integrated and operated in the KnowledgeWorks I and II buildings located on the Virginia Tech campus. The purpose of this thesis is to understand the energy and cost benefits of the Geothermal Heat Pumps System when compared to the conventional package variable air volume (VAV) with hot water coil heating and air-source heat pump systems using computer simulation and statistical models. The quantitative methods of building energy performance and life-cycle cost analyses are applied to evaluate the results of simulation models, the in-situ monitoring data, and the associated documents. This understanding can be expanded to the higher level of architectural systems integration. / Master of Science

Source water protection is important to maintain public health by keeping harmful pathogens out of drinking water. Non-point source pollution is often times a major contributor of pollution to surface waters, and this form of pollution can be difficult to quantify. This study examined physical, chemical, and microbiological water quality parameters that may indicate pollution and may help to identify sources of pollution. These included measures of organic matter, particles, and indicator organisms (fecal coliforms and E. coli). The parameters were quantified in the West Boylston Brook, which serves as a tributary to the Wachusett Reservoir and is part of the drinking water supply for the Metropolitan Boston area. Water quality was determined over four seasons at seven locations in the brook that were selected to isolate specific land uses. The water quality parameters were first analyzed for trends by site and by season. Then, a correlation analysis was performed to determine relationships among the water quality parameters. Lastly, ANOVA analyses were used to determine statistically significant variations in water quality along the tributary.

Several yeast species had previously been isolated from water systems in the North West Province, South Africa. Some of the identified species had, in other studies, been associated with superficial mucosal infections to life threatening diseases. Antifungal drugs are used to treat such yeast infections. However, due to prophylactic usage and continuous exposure some yeast species have developed resistance to some antifungal agents. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity and antifungal susceptibility of yeasts in selected rivers, Mooi River and Harts River in the North West Province, South Africa. Waters samples were collected from the rivers in summer and winter seasons. Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, nitrates and phosphates were measured to determine the water quality. Yeast colonies were enumerated at room temperature and 37°C using yeast-malt-extract agar (containing 100 ppm chloramphenicol). Pure isolates from 37°C were identified by biochemical tests and 26S rRNA gene sequencing. Yeast sequences of isolated yeasts were sent to Genbank. Phylogenetic tree was conducted to determine phylogenetic relationship between the yeast isolates. Disk diffusion antifungal susceptibility tests were conducted on the yeast species. Physico-chemical parameters of the water were within target water quality range for livestock farming but in most sampling sites out of range for irrigation use. pH, Nitrates, phosphates and chemical oxygen demand levels ranged from 7.40 to 8.64, 0 to 5.4 mg/L, 0 to 7.14 mg/L and 31 to 43 mg/L, respectively. Elevated levels of total dissolved solids were measured in all the sampling sites. Total yeast counts ranged between 320-4200 cfu/L and 27-2573 cfu/L for room temperature and 37˚C. All the yeast colonies isolated were non-pigmented. Diazonium Blue B tests determined the yeasts isolates as ascomycetes. Haemolysin and extracellular enzyme production tests were negative on all the isolates. Yeasts isolates were identified and belonged to the genera Arxiozyma, Candida, Clavispora, Cyberlindnera, Lecythophora, Pichia, Saccharomyces, and Wickerhamomyces. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida glabrata were mostly isolated species. Furthermore, the results indicated that levels of yeast could be correlated to physico-chemical quality of water. A large number of isolates were resistant to azoles, especially fluconazole as well as other antifungal classes. Most of the Candida species were resistant to almost all the antifungals. Several of the isolated yeast species are opportunistic pathogens. They could cause infections in sensitive individuals during occasional direct contact especially immune compromised people. Resistance of these yeast species to antifungal agents is a major health concern. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Several yeast species had previously been isolated from water systems in the North West Province, South Africa. Some of the identified species had, in other studies, been associated with superficial mucosal infections to life threatening diseases. Antifungal drugs are used to treat such yeast infections. However, due to prophylactic usage and continuous exposure some yeast species have developed resistance to some antifungal agents. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity and antifungal susceptibility of yeasts in selected rivers, Mooi River and Harts River in the North West Province, South Africa. Waters samples were collected from the rivers in summer and winter seasons. Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand, nitrates and phosphates were measured to determine the water quality. Yeast colonies were enumerated at room temperature and 37°C using yeast-malt-extract agar (containing 100 ppm chloramphenicol). Pure isolates from 37°C were identified by biochemical tests and 26S rRNA gene sequencing. Yeast sequences of isolated yeasts were sent to Genbank. Phylogenetic tree was conducted to determine phylogenetic relationship between the yeast isolates. Disk diffusion antifungal susceptibility tests were conducted on the yeast species. Physico-chemical parameters of the water were within target water quality range for livestock farming but in most sampling sites out of range for irrigation use. pH, Nitrates, phosphates and chemical oxygen demand levels ranged from 7.40 to 8.64, 0 to 5.4 mg/L, 0 to 7.14 mg/L and 31 to 43 mg/L, respectively. Elevated levels of total dissolved solids were measured in all the sampling sites. Total yeast counts ranged between 320-4200 cfu/L and 27-2573 cfu/L for room temperature and 37˚C. All the yeast colonies isolated were non-pigmented. Diazonium Blue B tests determined the yeasts isolates as ascomycetes. Haemolysin and extracellular enzyme production tests were negative on all the isolates. Yeasts isolates were identified and belonged to the genera Arxiozyma, Candida, Clavispora, Cyberlindnera, Lecythophora, Pichia, Saccharomyces, and Wickerhamomyces. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida glabrata were mostly isolated species. Furthermore, the results indicated that levels of yeast could be correlated to physico-chemical quality of water. A large number of isolates were resistant to azoles, especially fluconazole as well as other antifungal classes. Most of the Candida species were resistant to almost all the antifungals. Several of the isolated yeast species are opportunistic pathogens. They could cause infections in sensitive individuals during occasional direct contact especially immune compromised people. Resistance of these yeast species to antifungal agents is a major health concern. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Thanks to their adaptability and high efficiency compared to traditional carbon based surfactants, silicone surfactants are a success in many different applications, from pesticides to cosmetics, polyurethane foam, textile and car care products. In spite of those numerous applications, no analytical method existed for their trace determination in environmental samples and no data have been available regarding their environmental occurrence and fate. An analytical method for the trace analysis of trisiloxane surfactants in the aqueous environment was developed and validated. The method, based on liquid-liquid extraction and HPLC-MS/MS, reaches limits of quantification in the ng L-1 range and allows an individual quantification of every homologue of the targeted trisiloxane surfactant. The newly developed analytical method was applied to analyze 40 river water samples. The targeted trisiloxane surfactant was detected in 14 samples, between 1 ng L-1 and 100 ng L-1. The results showed that the studied trisiloxane surfactant does not ubiquitously occur in the aquatic environment in measurable concentrations, but can reach surface waters on a local scale. In order to assess the persistence of the trisiloxane surfactant in surface waters, its hydrolysis was studied in the lab, under various conditions (temperature, pH, and concentration). The half-lifes at pH 7 and 2 mg L-1 were found to be between 29 days and 55 days at 25°C and between 151 days and 289 days at 12°C. Taking only into account the hydrolysis, these results indicate that the trisiloxane surfactant could persist several weeks in surface waters. A degradation product of the trisiloxane surfactant was tentatively identified by high resolution mass spectrometry. When used as agricultural adjuvants, trisiloxane surfactants may reach the soil compartment and might further leach to ground water. The behavior of the trisiloxane surfactant on soil was therefore investigated to assess the possibility to reach ground water. With a sorption batch equilibrium method, distribution coefficients between water and soil (Kd, Koc, and Kclay) were estimated for two standard soils (loam and sandy loam) and for every homologue of the trisiloxane surfactant. The obtained values for Kd were between 15 L kg-1 and 135 L kg-1, indicating that the trisiloxane surfactant is only slightly mobile in soil. To further investigate the possibility of leaching to ground water after application on agricultural fields, the leaching in soil was simulated in the lab in a soil column. The experimental settings were designed to simulate a worst case scenario where the application of the trisiloxane surfactant is done on quartz sand and is immediately followed by a heavy rainfall. Even in these conditions, less than 0.01 % of the initially applied trisiloxane surfactant leached through 20 cm of quartz sand. Based on the Kd values and the results of the leaching in soil column, the studied trisiloxane surfactant is considered to be unlikely to leach to ground water after application as an agricultural adjuvant.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering / Stacy L. Hutchinson / The Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is widely used to estimate direct runoff from rainfall events; however, the method does not account for the dynamic rainfall-runoff relationship. This study used back-calculated curve numbers (CNs) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to develop NDVI-based CNs (CN[subscript]NDV) using four small northeastern Kansas grassland watersheds with average areas of 1 km² and twelve years (2001–2012) of daily precipitation and runoff data. Analysis indicated that the CN[subscript]NDVI model improved runoff predictions compared to the SCS-CN method. The CN[subscript]NDVI also showed greater variability in CNs, especially during growing season, thereby increasing the model’s ability to estimate relatively accurate runoff from rainfall events since most rainfall occurs during the growing season. The CN[subscript]NDVI model was applied to small, disturbed grassland watersheds to assess the model’s ability to detect land cover change impact for military maneuver damage and large, diverse land use/cover watersheds to assess the impact of scaling up the model. CN[subscript]NDVI application was assessed using a paired watershed study at Fort Riley, Kansas. Paired watersheds were identified through k-means and hierarchical-agglomerative clustering techniques. At the large watershed scale, Daymet precipitation was used to estimate runoff, which was compared to direct runoff extracted from stream flow at gauging points for Chapman (grassland dominated) and Upper Delaware (agriculture dominated) watersheds. In large, diverse watersheds, CN[subscript]NDVI performed better in moderate and overall flow years. Overall, CN[subscript]NDVI more accurately simulated runoff compared to SCS-CN results: The calibrated model increased by 0.91 for every unit increase in observed flow (r = 0.83), while standard CN-based flow increased by 0.506 for every unit increase in observed flow (r = 0.404). Therefore, CN[subscript]NDVI could help identify land use/cover changes and disturbances and spatiotemporal changes in runoff at various scales. CN[subscript]NDVI could also be used to accurately estimate runoff from precipitation events in order to instigate more timely land management decisions.

Warmer air temperatures projected for the mid-21st century under climate change are expected to translate to increased evaporation and a re-distribution of precipitation around the world, including in the mid-latitude, continental Athabasca River region in northern Alberta, Canada. This study examines how these projected changes will affect the water balance of various lake sizes. A thermodynamic lake model, MyLake, is used to determine evaporation over three theoretical lake basins – a shallow lake, representative of perched basins in the Peace-Athabasca Delta near Fort Chipewyan; an intermediate-depth lake representative of industrial water storage near Fort McMurray; and a deep lake representative of future off-stream storage of water by industry, also near Fort McMurray. Bias-corrected climate data from an ensemble of Regional Climate Models are incorporated in MyLake, and the water balance is completed by calculating the change in storage as the difference between precipitation and evaporation. Results indicate that evaporation and precipitation are projected to increase in the future by similar magnitudes, thus not significantly changing the long-term water balance of the lakes. However, intra-annual precipitation and evaporation patterns are projected to shift within the year, changing seasonal water level cycles, and the magnitudes and frequencies of extreme 1-, 3- and 5-day weather events are projected to increase. These results demonstrate that future climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies should take into account increases in intra-annual variability and extreme events on water levels of lakes in mid-latitude, interior hydroclimatic regimes. / Graduate / 0368 / walkerg@uvic.ca

<p>Östby waterworks in the community of Kramfors has since 2003 had problems of fast clogging of the slow sand filters. As the clogging appears more often, they must be cleaned more frequently which has made the drinking water preparation difficult. Wintertime it has sometimes been impossible to clean the filters which has led to their closing and this has influenced the water quality negatively.</p><p>The waterworks is a surface waterworks which takes its raw water from the lake Sjöbysjön. The water is flocculated and filtered in a contact filter with the flocculent EKOFLOCK 91. Thereafter it is alkalinized before it reaches the outdoors placed slow sand filters. After the filters the water is alkalinized and disinfected before it reaches the customers.</p><p>This thesis work has looked into which factors influence the clogging and trials have been made in order to optimize the waterworks and thereby reduce the clogging. The raw water has been studied with aspect to biology and chemistry, the filtered water has been studied with aspect to chemistry and also the pressures in the slow sand filters have been studied.</p><p>The colour of the raw water from Sjöbysjön and its catchment area has increased since the beginning of the 90-ies and also the bio volume has increased in the lake.</p><p>The contents of aluminium before the slow sand filters are far higher than the contents after, which leads to the conclusion that aluminium is accumulated in the filters. The differential pressure over the sand bed increases with time after a cleaning. This indicates an accumulation of particles which increases with the load. Observations of the filter surface before cleaning showed that it was covered by a brown, jelly-like film. The internal resistance in the filter beds increases successively after a cleaning and one month after cleaning it is highest in the upper part of the sand bed. All this points to that flocculated aluminium is gathered in the slow sand filters, on the surface, causing clogging.</p><p>While the thesis work has been going on a process of alkalinizing before the contact filters has been reengaged and this has influenced the flocking of organic materials. When raising the pH the dose of flocculent was increased and this combined increased the amount of flocculated material. The contact filters could not bear this increased amount of flock load but showed instead a breakthrough.</p><p>In a few lab scale trials the flocking pH was varied as well as the dose flocculent to the raw water and after this the water was filtrated. A tendency was seen that the separation of aluminium, colour and turbidity increased with increasing pH and dose flocculent. At the pH 6.2 and the chemical dose of 60 g/m3 the content of aluminium, the colour and the turbidity showed the lowest values in the filtrate.</p> / <p>Vattenverket i Östby, Kramfors kommun, har sedan 2003 haft problem med för snabba igensättningar i långsamfiltren. Ju oftare de sätter igen desto mer frekvent måste de rensas vilket har försvårat dricksvattenberedningen. Vintertid har rensningar ibland inte kunnat utföras och långsamfiltren har därför stängts av vilket har påverkat vattenkvaliteten negativt.</p><p>Verket är ett ytvattenverk som tar sitt råvatten från Sjöbysjön. Vattnet flockas och filtreras i kontaktfilter med fällningskemikalien EKOFLOCK 91. Därefter mellanalkaliniseras det innan det går till de utomhus placerade långsamfiltren. Efter långsamfiltren efteralkaliniseras och desinficeras det innan det når konsumenterna.</p><p>I detta examensarbete har faktorer som påverkar igensättningarna undersökts och försök har också gjorts för att optimera driften och därmed minska igensättningarna. Råvattnet har undersökts avseende dess biologi och kemi, filtraten i verken har undersökts med avseende på deras kemi och tryckbildningar i långsamfiltren har studerats.</p><p>Färgtalet i råvattentäkten Sjöbysjön och dess tillrinningsområde har ökat sedan början av 90- talet och dessutom har biovolymen i sjön ökat.</p><p>Halterna aluminium före långsamfiltren är mycket högre än halterna efter, vilket antyder att aluminium ansamlas i filtren. Differentialtrycket över sandbädden ökar med tiden efter en rensning. Detta tyder på en ansamling av partiklar som ökar med belastningen. Observationer av filterytan innan rensning visade att den täcktes av en brun geléaktig hinna. Motståndet i filtren ökar successivt efter en rensning och är en månad efter rensning störst i den övre delen av sandbädden. Allt detta pekar på att aluminiumflock ansamlas i långsamfiltren, på ytan, och orsakar igensättningarna.</p><p>Under examensarbetets gång har en föralkalinisering återinförts i vattenverkets process och den har påverkat fällningen av det organiska materialet. Då pH höjts har också dosen fällningskemikalie ökats vilket har ökat mängden flock. Denna ökade flockmängd har kontaktfiltren inte kunnat bära utan istället släppt igenom.</p><p>I några försök i labbskala varierades fällnings-pH och dos fällningskemikalie till råvatten med en efterföljande filtrering. Tendenser som kunde ses var att avskiljningen av aluminium, färg och turbiditet ökade med ökat pH och ökad dos fällningskemikalie. Vid pH 6,2 och kemikaliedos på 60 g/m3 var aluminiumhalterna, färgen och turbiditeten som minst i filtratet.</p>