Resíduos de mineração, dispostos em barragens de rejeito, são materiais de baixas densidades e resistências, em geral – muitas vezes, suscetíveis à liquefação. Desta forma, técnicas de melhoramento de solos, tais como o Deep Soil Mixing, surgem como possibilidade à estabilização destes materiais. Neste sentido, baseado nesta técnica, este trabalho visa avaliar o comportamento mecânico de resíduos de mineração de ouro estabilizados com cimento, comparativamente aos rejeitos no estado natural, analisando fatores de influência (quantidade de agente cimentante, umidade inicial das amostras e líquido empregado na moldagem). Para este propósito, ensaios de resistência à compressão simples, de compressão diametral, de ondas ultrassônicas e triaxiais não-drenados (CIU) foram empregados. Os resultados mostram que os resíduos de mineração, nas condições representativas de campo, apresentam baixas resistências e suscetibilidade à liquefação a baixas tensões confinantes. Por sua vez, os ensaios com resíduo estabilizado com cimento revelaram que: o aumento nas taxas de cimentação, a diminuição dos teores de umidade iniciais das amostras e uso de licor proveniente das barragens de rejeito nas moldagens, repercutiram, em geral, em aumentos nas resistências (qu e qt) e na rigidez inicial (G0) das misturas As análises de variância comprovaram que todos os fatores controláveis estudados foram significativos para as respostas avaliadas e demonstraram que a influência da dosagem de cimento foi muito mais pronunciada, em relação às outras variáveis. O comportamento tensão-deformação das misturas, sob condições não-drenadas, foi típico de materiais cimentados submetidos à baixas tensões confinantes – com geração de poro-pressões negativas devidas à tendência à dilatação. Ainda, ficou demonstrado que o índice porosidade/teor volumétrico de cimento (η/Civ) é adequado para a previsão do comportamento mecânico das misturas resíduo-cimento, considerando os parâmetros estudados – ampliando a possibilidade de aplicação deste índice. Foi observado, que existe uma proporcionalidade direta entre as resistências à tração e à compressão das misturas, que independe da relação η/Civ, sendo esta traduzida através de um valor escalar único (ξ = 0,17). / Mine tailings are materials of low in situ densities and strengths, in general – often susceptible to liquefaction. In view of this, soil improvement methods such as Deep Soil Mixing can be alternatives for the stabilization of these materials. In this sense, based on DSM techniques, this research aims to analyze the mechanical behaviour of cemented gold mine tailings, comparing to its natural condition, evaluating factors that influence the stabilization (cement content, initial water content and type of water for preparing specimens). For this purpose, unconfined compressive tests, splitting tensile tests, ultrasonic pulse velocity tests and undrained triaxial (CIU) tests were used. The results showed that remoulded mine tailings samples presented low strength and liquefaction susceptibility under low confining pressures. In its turn, the tests with cemented gold tailings revealed that: increasing the cement content, decreasing initial water content and using water from the tailings pond (liquor) in moulding provided strength (qu and qt) and initial stiffness (G0) gains on the mixtures of gold mine tailings-Portland cement. In this regard, the variance analysis statistically demonstrated that all the factors chosen on the experiment were significant to the parameters assessed It is also showed that the cement content influence was much more pronounced than other factors. Furthermore, the stress-strain behaviour of the blends is typical of cemented materials under low confining pressures and undrained conditions – with negative pore-pressures build-up. In addition, it is demonstrated that the porosity/cement index controls the mechanical performance of gold tailings-Portland cement blends, considering the whole range of densities and cement contents studied – what broadens the applicability of such index. Finally, it was found a single relationship between tensile (qt) and compressive strength (qu) equal to 0.17, being independent of the porosity/cement ratio.

A mineração altera as condições ambientais naturais. Uma alternativa estudada para a recuperação de áreas degradadas é o uso de lodo de esgoto (LE) gerado por estações de tratamento de esgoto (ETE). Desse modo, o presente trabalho avaliou o uso integrado de rejeito de mineração de basalto (RM) e resíduo de saneamento (lodo de esgoto) como substituto ao uso de solo de cobertura (SC) durante a recuperação ambiental de pedreiras. Um experimento ex situ foi montado no Centro de Tecnologia/UFRGS, conferindo-se a adição de LE ou SC a RM e comparado à utilização de SC por meio de análises de fertilidade de solos e plantio de gramínea (Avena strigosa) como variáveis respostas. Amostras de RM e de SC foram obtidas em pedreira de basalto em Novo Hamburgo-RS e o LE, em uma ETE no mesmo município. Inicialmente RM, SC e LE foram caracterizados em termos de teor de matéria orgânica (MO) para definição dos tratamentos. O LE foi caracterizado conforme CONAMA 375/2006. O delineamento experimental consistiu em 5 tratamentos (misturas) e 5 blocos: (A) RM (0,1% MO), (B) RM + LE (1,8% MO), (C) RM + SC (1,8% MO), (D) SC (3,2% MO) e (E) RM + LE (3,2% MO) Os tratamentos foram submetidos à caracterização química (pH, macro e micronutrientes) e granulometria. Paralelamente, semeou-se aveia preta (Avena strigosa) a qual foi coletada, seca e pesada durante a conclusão do ciclo vegetativo; a massa seca e o teor de nutrientes em tecido foliar foram comparados. Resultados mostram baixo teor de MO em RM (0,1%), diferentemente do SC (3,2%) e do LE (15,1%). O LE cumpre os parâmetros impostos pela legislação. A granulometria dos tratamentos A, B e E, foi caracterizada como arenosa e dos tratamentos C e D como média. As misturas com RM + LE com 1,8 e 3,2% de MO apresentaram níveis adequados de pH, micro e macronutrientes, o que refletiu na maior produção de matéria seca e teores de nutrientes no tecido foliar dos tratamentos B e E. Verificou-se que a mistura de LE e RM possui vantagens em termos de produção de matéria seca quando comparado ao SC, mostrando que o uso integrado de LE e de RM, na forma proposta, pode ser usado como material substituto ao uso de SC para recuperação de áreas degradadas, contribuindo ainda, na disposição final destes materiais. / Mining impacts natural environmental conditions. A widely studied alternative to address environmental restoration in degraded areas is the use of sewage sludge (LE), which is a byproduct of urban sewage treatment plant (ETE). In this context, the present study evaluated the integrated use of basalt quarry waste (RM) and sewage sludge (LE) as a substitute for natural soils (SC) during quarry environmental restoration. An ex situ experiment was installed at the Technology Center of UFRGS in which LE or SC where mixed to RM and compared to the use of SC through soil fertility analysis and grass growth (Avena strigosa) as dependent variables. RM and SC samples were collected at a basalt quarry in the city of Novo Hamburgo-RS, and LE at an ETE in the same city. Initially, RM, SC and LE were characterized in terms of organic matter content (MO) which was used for the definition of treatments. The LE was characterized according to CONAMA 375/2006. A completely randomized design experiment was used, including five treatments (mixtures) and five blocks: (A) RM (0.1% MO), (B) RM + LE (1.8% MO), (C) RM + SC (1.8% MO), (D) SC (3.2% MO) e (E) RM + LE (3,2% MO) Chemical (pH, macro and micronutrients) and particle size distribution characterization analysis were performed in all soil mixture treatments. In parallel, black oat (Avena strigosa) was sown in all treatments which was cut, dried and weight near to its vegetative cycle conclusion; dry mass production and nutrients in plant tissue were compared. Results showed low MO in RM (0.1%) differently from SC (3.2%) and LE (15.1%). LE is in accordance with CONAMA legislation. Texture of treatments A, B and E was characterized as coarse and in treatments C and D as medium. Mixtures containing RM + LE with 1.8% and 3.2% MO had adequate pH and micro and macronutrient content, what is supported by the highest dry mass production in the B and E treatments. It was verified that the addition of LE to the RM leads to better outcomes in terms of dry mass production when compared to SC. Results show that as proposed, the integrated use of LE and RM can be used as an alternative for SC use in environmental restoration, also contributing to these materials’ disposal.

A mineração é formada pelo conjunto de ações de lavra, concentração e transformação do minério para múltiplas finalidades. O resultado da explotação de diversos minérios, após seus beneficiamentos, é a produção de rejeitos, em quantidades variáveis. Características diversas como vazão e conteúdo de água na polpa, densidade, arredondamento, esfericidade e granulometria do material interferem e definem projetos e construção de barragens para contenção de rejeitos. Desta forma, o estudo e avaliação técnica dos rejeitos empregados na construção destas barragens e o seu comportamento são fundamentais para a divulgação e enriquecimento científico e prático, principalmente no que tange aos aspectos de segurança. Foram avaliadas as características do material depositado ao longo de praias de rejeitos de minério de ferro e fosfato, analisando-se a granulometria, densidade real dos grãos, análise de forma (arredondamento, esfericidade e relação de aspecto), e os ensaios de simulação hidráulica, estudando a variabilidade da granulometria e forma dos grãos. Verificou-se que a deposição hidráulica nas praias de rejeitos ocorre pelo efeito da granulometria e densidade, em lentes e/ou camadas com características semelhantes, condicionando variações verticais e horizontais, análoga a leques aluviais úmidos. Não foram observadas variações significativas na forma dos grãos ao longo da praia. Os ensaios de simulação revelam sedimentação em camadas planares a lenticulares, com a diminuição da granulometria à medida que se afasta do ponto de lançamento, mas alterada pelo efeito das paredes do tanque. Portanto, os comportamentos geológico-geotécnicos das praias em barragens de contenção de rejeitos, determinados por uma variabilidade deposicional, devem ser considerados na elaboração de planos de instrumentação mais eficientes em futuros projetos. / The mining is formed by ore extraction, concentration, and transformation for multiple purposes. The result of the exploitation of several ores is, after their treatment, the tailings production in variable quantities. Several characteristics as flow and content of water in the slurry, as well as density, roundness, sphericity, and grain size distribution of the sediments interfere and define projects and construction of tailings dams. Considering this, the study and technical evaluation of the tailings used are fundamental for scientifical and practical enhancement, mainly referring to security aspects. The material deposited along tailings beaches from iron and phosphate ores was investigated in grain size distribution, real density of the grains, grain shape analysis (roundness, sphericity, and aspect ratio). Also the hydraulic deposition (flumes) was analyzed according to the grain size distribution and shape analysis of sediments. In tailings beaches it was found that the sedimentation happens, due to grain size distribution and density in lenses and/or layers with similar characteristics but with vertical and horizontal variations, muck like humid alluvial fans. Significant variations were not observed in the grain shape analysis along the beaches. The flume tests revealed sedimentation in planar and lenses lamination, with decrease of the grain size distribution in a downstream direction, but modified by the effects of the flume walls. Therefore, the geological and geotechnical behaviors of the beaches in tailings dams, characterized by depositional variability, should be considered in future projects with more efficient instrumentation plan.

Entre os principais métodos construtivos de barragens de contenção de rejeitos de mineração, o método da linha de montante é sem dúvida o mais vulnerável à ocorrência de acidentes originados por forças de percolação da água pelo barramento. Em um sistema barragem-reservatório constituído de solos finos e de baixa coesão, como as barragens de contenção de rejeitos, as forças de percolação da água favorecem a instalação de processos erosivos internos de piping e liquefação, maiores responsáveis pelos acidentes já registrados. Para redução dos riscos de acidentes em barragens construídas pelo método da linha de montante, a avaliação do comportamento do nível dágua deve ser constante. Neste contexto, o trabalho apresenta um programa de instrumentação e monitoramento composto por medidas piezométricas, pluviométricas, de vazão, do nível dágua do reservatório e de deslocamento horizontal com marco topográfico, com vistas ao aumento do fator de segurança destas obras. A execução de um procedimento metodológico com base no programa de instrumentação e monitoramento acima citado, possibilita a avaliação do comportamento do nível dágua nestas barragens. Por fim, são descritos os aspectos relevantes para correlação dos dados da instrumentação com os valores-limite definidos para o projeto, critério este determinante para o sucesso de um programa de instrumentação. O procedimento metodológico apresentado se mostrou eficiente na obtenção de parâmetros indispensáveis a uma correta avaliação do comportamento do nível dágua e as condições estruturais do barramento. / Among the main building methods of tailings dams, the upstream method is undoubtedly the most vulnerable to the occurrence of the failure originated by the power of seepage groundwater through the embankment. In a reservoir-dam system having low cohesion slimes, such as tailings dams, the power of seepage groundwater benefits the installation of internal erosive processes of piping and liquefaction, the most responsible for the failure already registered. For reduction of failure risks in tailings dams built through upstream method, the assessment of water level behavior must be constant. In this context, the survey presents an instrumental and monitored program composed by piezometer, rainy, downstream outlet, reservoir level of water measures and benchmark providing the increase of safety in these works. The execution of a methodological procedure based on the instrumental and monitored program above mentioned makes possible the assessment of water level behavior in these dams. At last, the relevant aspects for correlation of instrumental data with the limit-values defined for the project are described, meaningful criterion for the success of an instrumental program. The methodological procedure showed efficiency for the obtain of indispensable patterns for a right level of water behavior assessment and structure embankment condictions.

Depósitos de rejeitos de carvão proporcionam uma série de problemas ambientais, pois ocupam uma grande área física, modificam o relevo, a paisagem e geram a drenagem ácida de minas (DAM). Assim, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi realizar a caracterização do material em um depósito de rejeitos da Carbonífera Criciúma S/A, de forma a avaliar a possibilidade de separação de três frações para futura reutilização: (a) uma fração de densidade baixa, rica em carvão para uso energético; (b) uma fração de densidade intermediária, com predomínio de materiais inertes; (c) uma fração de densidade alta, para uso comercial da pirita. A metodologia do trabalho consistiu na coleta de amostras e caracterização do material. A caracterização incluiu a análise granulométrica, estudos de afunda-flutua em meios densos e análises do material em termos de teor de cinzas e enxofre total. Os resultados demonstraram que 68% do material apresentam granulometria grosseira (entre 50,8 mm e 2,0 mm), 15% granulometria fina (entre 2,0 e 0,1 mm) e que 17% correspondem ao lodo proveniente das bacias de decantação. Os estudos indicam que é possível, por beneficiamento gravimétrico, recuperar 37% do material para fins energéticos, com um teor de 67,0% de cinzas e 2,9% de enxofre total. Ainda, 10% do material poderá ser recuperados para obtenção de um concentrado rico em pirita. O material remanescente, com densidade intermediária, poderá ser disposto com um menor potencial de geração de acidez. / Coal tailing deposits can be a source of various environmental problems. It demands large physical area, change the topography and generate the acid mine drainage (AMD). The aim of this work was to characterize the coal tailing deposit of Carbonífera Criciúma S/A, seeking the separation of three fractions for future reuse: (a) a fraction of low density for energy production in thermoelectric plants, (b) a fraction of intermediate density, with predominance of inert minerals, and (c) a fraction of high density, for commercial use of pyrite. The work methodology consisted in sample collection and characterization of the material. The characterization included particle size analysis, densimetric studies and material analyses in terms of ash and total sulfur. The results showed that 68% of the material is composed by coarse particles (between 50.8 mm and 2.0 mm), and 15% of fine particles (between 2.0 and 0.1 mm) and 17% sludge from settling ponds. It is possible, by gravimetric concentration, to recover 34.2% of the material for energetic application, with 67.0% ash and 2.9% sulfur. Still, 10.0% of the material can be recovered as a pyrite rich concentrate. The remaining material, with intermediate density, can be discarded with a lower acid generation potential.

M.A. (Geography and Environmental Management) / Water can be regarded as a scarce commodity in South Africa and one cannot rely solely on the discovery of new water resources to meet the ever increasing demands. Water is arguably the most precious resource in South Africa and its proper management in all spheres of activity is imperative ( Middleton and Stern,1987 ). This is no different in the mining industry where a primary consumptive use of water is in the tailings dams and associated return water. Restricted implementation of Government water plans and a series of droughts has forced users of water to optimise their use of water. A key to correct water management of a tailings disposal system on a gold mine lies in accurate and meaningful water balance. To provide an accurate water balance, quantifying the water loss is necessary. The water loss in a tailings system is mainly due to evaporation and interstitial flow. For the purpose of this study, evaporation is dealt with in more detail.

Mature fine tailings (MFT), as a mixture of residual bitumen, sand, silt, fine clay particles and water, are a byproduct of oil sands extraction. The large volume, and poor consolidation and water release ability of MFT have been causing significant economic and environmental concerns. Therefore, several studies have been implemented on finding innovative dewatering/disposal techniques. As a result, different methods have been introduced and tested at a laboratory or a field scale, yet very few of these are commercially used in the oil sands industries. Despite the extensive research, an optimal solution has not been found due to the lack of technical or economic feasibility. In the present study, a novel approach that consists of the rapid dewatering of MFT by using a super absorbent polymer (SAP) to produce dense MFT is proposed. A comprehensive laboratory investigation on the geotechnical characteristics and behavior before and after treatment of MFT is conducted. The effects of SAP based dewatering and freeze/thaw cycles on the undrained shear strength of dewatered MFT by using a vane shear apparatus are studied. Furthermore, the ability of recycled SAP to dewater and densify MFT is assessed. Finally, this study provides the results of consolidation and hydraulic conductivity testing to evaluate the void ratio versus effective stress and hydraulic conductivity of MFT. The effects on the behavior and characteristics of MFT after amendment with usage of recycled SAP are also investigated. The results indicate that SAP has the ability to significantly dewater, densify and increase the undrained shear strength of MFT. Furthermore, when subjected to freeze/thaw cycles, the MFT dewatered with SAP shows an additional increase in strength and solid content. It is also found to be possible to regenerate the polymer (still within sachets) through light thermal drying, and the regenerated SAP can still significantly dewater and thus increase the shear strength and solid content of the MFT. In addition, the obtained high solid content affects and improves the compressibility of the material, thus resulting in low initial void ratios. On the other hand, low hydraulic permeability that is derived from low initial void ratios and consolidation is improved by the freeze/thaw process due to the interconnected voids created during the freezing process.

One hundred surface sediment samples and two 30 cm cores were collected from Howe Sound, British Columbia, a deep (≈280 m) fjord with a restricted inner basin into which mine tailings had been dumped for 75 years. The abundances of major elements Si, Al, Ti, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, C, N, and P, and minor elements Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, V, Y, Zn, and Zr were determined as well as nutrient and trace metal concentrations in porewater from the two cores. The solid-phase data suggest that the inner basin sediments are dominated by Squamish River-derived feldspars, while the outer basin is characterized more by quartz and Fe and Mg minerals, which enter the southernmost portion of the fjord via estuarine circulation from Georgia Strait. Although Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Ba are still enriched in sediments near the tailings outfall, the lapse of 13 years since cessation of tailings deposition has apparently resulted in reduced metal levels throughout much of the rest of the inlet due to ongoing dilution by natural sedimentation. Profiles of these metals with depth show that the tailings deposit proper is buried by ≈14 cm of natural sediment in the deep central portion of the inner basin. Porewater analysis of the two cores revealed that active bacterial remobilization of organic matter is occurring at both locations; although the organic carbon content of the outer basin is greater than that in the inner basin, sulphate-reduction is more intense in the latter due to the higher sedimentation rate. Despite this, dissolved sulphides were nearly absent in porewaters, leading to the conclusion that authigenic pyrite precipitation is removing some of the dissolved Fe. Dissolved Cu and Zn are enriched in surficial porewaters of both the outer and inner basins (i.e. Cu = 215 and 132 nmol/L, respectively, and Zn = 32 µmol/L and 1.6 /µmol/L), but decrease rapidly within the top 2-3 cm, suggestive of active removal by some mechanism. Dissolved Pb concentrations were low (<3 nmol/L) in both cores, and did not show any surface enrichment. These data suggest that a strongly reducing environment such as is found at depth in natural sediments inhibits the release of some labile metals which may be contained within them. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

Over the past decades, cemented paste backfill (CPB) has become a common, environmentally friendly method of managing mine wastes (such as tailings). This technology allows up to 60% of the total amount of tailings to be reused and filled in the mine stopes after converting them into cemented material. Beside reducing the environmental risks associated with the traditional disposal of these materials, turning them into cemented material and placing them in the underground mine stopes can also provide secondary support for these stopes in addition to minimizing the risk of ground subsidence in the mine area. CPB is an engineered mixture of tailings, water, and hydraulic binder (such as cement, blast furnace slag, and fly ash) that is mixed in the paste plant and delivered into the mine stopes through a gravity or pumping based transportation system. During the transportation of CPB through the delivery system pipelines, the flowability of CPB depends on the rheology of the transported CPB, which is affected by different factors, such as the transportation time, temperature variation, binder type, and chemical composition of these mixtures. In addition, the performance of CPB, after placing the CPB mixture into the mine stopes, is mainly dependent on the role of the hydraulic binder, as it increases the mechanical strength of the mixture through the process of cement hydration. The mechanical strength is also influenced by different factors, such as time progress, temperature variation, and presence of chemical additives. It has previously been found that fresh CPB transported and/or placed in the mine stopes can be susceptible to temperature variation of different sources, such as the climatic effects, heat generated from the surrounding rocks, and heat generated during the process of cement hydration. Unsuitable flowability of CPB through the delivery system might lead to significant financial losses due to clogging of pipelines with unexpected hardening of CPB during transportation, which will cause delay in work and possible damages to the pipelines. Also, failure of CPB structure in the mine stopes due to inappropriate mechanical strength may cause casualties to the mine workers as well as significant environmental and economic damages. Many researchers studied the rheological properties and/or strength development of CPB under the individual effect of any of the aforementioned factors. Additionally, many researchers have evaluated the coupled effect of some of these factors on the rheology and mechanical strength of CPB material. Hitherto, there are currently no studies that addressed the combined effect of all these conditions on the rheological properties and strength development of CPB. At the first stage of this M.A.Sc. study, a series of experimental tests was conducted on fresh CPB in order to determine the combined effect of time, temperature, binder content, and chemical additives on the rheological properties of CPB. These experiments include rheological properties test (yield stress and viscosity), microstructural analysis (thermal analysis and XRD), chemical analysis (pH and Zeta potential), and monitoring tests (electrical conductivity), which were conducted on 125 CPB samples that were mixed and prepared at different temperatures (2oC, 20oC, 35oC) and cured for different curing time (0 hrs., 0.25 hrs., 1 hr., 2hrs, and 4 hrs.). These samples were prepared with different blends of hydraulic binders (PCI, PCI/Slag, and PCI/FA) and contained different dosages of sodium silicate (0%, 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5%). The results obtained show that rheology of CPB increases with the progress of curing time. It also increases with the increase in the initial (mixing and curing) temperature and content of sodium silicate. It was also found that the partial usage of slag and FA reduces the rheological properties. However, CPBs containing PCI/FA as binder have lower rheological properties, and thus better flowability, than those that contain PCI/Slag as binder. At the second stage of this M.A.Sc. study, in order to understand the combined effect of time, temperature and sodium silicate content on the strength development of slag-CPB, unconfined compression (UCS) test, microstructural analysis (thermal analysis and MIP), and monitoring tests (electrical conductivity, suction, and volumetric water content) were conducted on 72 CPB samples that were prepared with PCI-Slag as a binder, cured for different times (1 day, 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days) under different curing temperatures of (2oC, 20oC, 35oC), and contained different dosages of sodium silicate (0%, 0.3% and 0.5%). The results obtained at this stage showed that the strength development of slag-CPB increases with the progress of curing time and temperature. It also increases with the increase in the sodium silicate content. Also, the combined effect of high temperature, high dosage of sodium silicate and longer curing time showed significant enhancement in the mechanical strength of slag-CPB. The findings of this M.A.Sc. research will contribute to cost effective, efficient, and safer design of CPB structures in the mine areas. It will also help in minimizing financial loss associated with unsuitable flowability of CPB transported in the CPB delivery system besides reducing the risks of human loss, and the environmental and economic damages associated with the failure of CPB structures.

This thesis presents the results of an investigation of factors which influence the geotechnical properties of frozen mine backfill (FMB). FMB has extensive application potential for mining in permafrost areas. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of hardened backfill is often used to evaluate mine backfill stability. However, the deformation behaviour and stiffness of the FMB are also key design properties of interest. In this thesis, uniaxial compressive tests were conducted on FTB and FCPB samples. Information about the geotechnical properties of FMB is obtained. The effects of FMB mix components and vertical compression pressure on the geotechnical properties of FMB are discussed and summarized. An optimum total water content of 25%-35% is found in which the strength and the modulus of elasticity of the FTB are 1.4-3.2 MPa and 35-58 MPa, respectively. It is observed that a small amount (3-6%) of cement can significantly change the geotechnical properties of FTB.