Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemistry / Santosh Aryal / Nanotechnology offers exciting options for the site-selective delivery of chemotherapeutics and diagnostic agents using nanoparticles. Varieties of organic and inorganic nanomaterials have been explored extensively as a delivery system either in the form of drug carriers or imaging agents. Successful stories include the clinical translation of anticancer nanomedicines such as PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (DOXIL®), albumin-bound paclitaxel (Abraxane®), and polymeric micelle loaded paclitaxel (Genexol®), which are currently used in the clinic as one of the first lines for cancer chemotherapies. These conventional nanomedicines rely on passive-drug targeting taking advantage of leaky tumor vasculature, called the Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effect. However, delivering biologically active components selectively to the diseased cell, for example, cancer, is highly challenging due to the biological barriers in the body including blood pool cells/proteins, heterogeneous microenvironment, and intracellular degradation. Therefore, the goal of this dissertation is to develop nanoplatforms that can deliver the agents of interest in targeted fashion to cancer while bypassing or collaborating with the biological barriers. The design consideration of these nanoplatforms centralizes on using simple chemical reactions and cell biology to engineer nanoparticles. The presented nanoparticles were extensively studied and evaluated for their biological functions using in vitro and in vivo models. These nanoconstructs described herein address current limitations of conventional nanomedicine such as (1) the lack of understanding of the interaction of nanoparticle and biological system, and (2) the lack of an effective targeting strategy to deliver drugs to the cancer cell in the tumors. The significant findings of each system will be highlighted and discussed throughout this dissertation. Results obtained highlight key findings such as NP intracellular fate, maximized tumor accumulation, and unique pharmacokinetics could open the avenues for systemic investigations for personalized medicine and lay the foundation for nanomedicine design to accelerate clinical translation.

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition has recently emerged as a novel therapy for cancer treatment. However, currently approved histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are pan-inhibitors thus inhibiting all 11 zinc dependent HDAC isoforms including those not involved in tumorigenesis. These inhibitors are also associated with various side effects including a potentially fatal cardiotoxicity. To address these issues, isoform selective HDACi were designed and synthesized. The use of 3-hydroxy-pyridin-2-thione (3HPT) as zinc chelation group resulted in small molecules devoid of HDAC1 inhibition but active against HDAC6 and/or 8. Selected 3HPT containing HDACi displayed anticancer activity against various cancer cell lines including DU145, LNCaP and Jurkat. Surprisingly, the lead-compounds were very potent against Jurkat Jγ cells which are resistant to SAHA-induced apoptosis. HDACi were also targeted to cancer cells using folic or pteroic acids as targeting groups. Incorporation of the folic acid into the HDACi pharmacophoric model resulted in inhibitors selective for HDAC6, whereas pteroic-based HDACi inhibited both HDAC1 and 6. Only the pteroic-based inhibitors displayed anticancer activities against folate receptor overexpressing tumors such KB and HeLa. Furthermore, cell-based studies established the inhibition of HDAC1 as the basis for the anticancer activities of the pteroic-based HDACi.

Immuno-nanoparticles of poly(ᴅ,ʟ-lactide-co-2-methyl-2-carboxytrimethylene carbonate)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) (poly(LA-co-TMCC)-g-PEG) have been used to target breast cancer cells through the specific binding of trastuzumab antibodies to over-expressed human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Small interfering RNA (siRNA) and antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) disrupt the synthesis of select proteins. It is hypothesized that oligonucleotides coupled to polymeric immuno-nanoparticles can be used for gene silencing and specifically to target luciferase. The first objective is to demonstrate the capacity to create dual functional micelles with antibodies and oligonucleotides. The second objective is in vitro testing of the nanoparticle for gene silencing activity. Oligonucleotides are conjugated to the nanoparticle by sequential click reactions of Diels Alder chemistry and copper catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloadditions, respectively. A luciferase assay is used to quantify knockdown of luciferase levels in SKOV-3luc cells (HER2+, luc+). When used in conjunction with a targeted drug delivery vehicle, the nanoparticles provide selective interactions with SKOV-3luc cells.

Immuno-nanoparticles of poly(ᴅ,ʟ-lactide-co-2-methyl-2-carboxytrimethylene carbonate)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) (poly(LA-co-TMCC)-g-PEG) have been used to target breast cancer cells through the specific binding of trastuzumab antibodies to over-expressed human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Small interfering RNA (siRNA) and antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) disrupt the synthesis of select proteins. It is hypothesized that oligonucleotides coupled to polymeric immuno-nanoparticles can be used for gene silencing and specifically to target luciferase. The first objective is to demonstrate the capacity to create dual functional micelles with antibodies and oligonucleotides. The second objective is in vitro testing of the nanoparticle for gene silencing activity. Oligonucleotides are conjugated to the nanoparticle by sequential click reactions of Diels Alder chemistry and copper catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloadditions, respectively. A luciferase assay is used to quantify knockdown of luciferase levels in SKOV-3luc cells (HER2+, luc+). When used in conjunction with a targeted drug delivery vehicle, the nanoparticles provide selective interactions with SKOV-3luc cells.

No / The chemical and biological nonproliferation regime stands at a watershed moment, when failure seems a real possibility. After the unsuccessful outcome of the 2016 Eighth Review Conference, the future of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention is uncertain. As the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) approaches its Fourth Review Conference in 2018, it has almost completed removing the huge stocks of chemical weapons, but it now faces the difficult organizational task of moving its focus to preventing the reemergence of chemical weapons at a time when the international security situation appears to be increasingly more difficult and dangerous. In this article, we assess the current and near-term state (5–10 years) and impact of three related areas of science and technology that could be of dual-use concern: targeted delivery of agents to the central nervous system (CNS), particularly by means of nanotechnology; direct impact of nanomaterials on synaptic functions in the CNS; and neuronal circuits in the brain that might be targeted by those with hostile intent. We attempt to assess the implications of our findings, particularly for the consideration of the problem of state-level interest in so-called nonlethal incapacitating chemical agents for law enforcement at the CWC Review Conference in 2018, but also more generally for the longer-term future of the chemical and biological nonproliferation regime.

Yes / Targeted therapy remains the future of anti-cancer drug development, owing to the lack of specificity of current treatments which lead to damage in healthy normal tissues. ATR inhibitors have in recent times demonstrated promising clinical potential, and are currently being evaluated in the clinic. However, despite the considerable optimism for clinical success of these inhibitors, reports of associated normal tissues toxicities remain a concern and can compromise their utility. Here, ICT10336 is reported, a newly developed hypoxia-responsive prodrug of ATR inhibitor, AZD6738, which is hypoxia-activated and specifically releases AZD6738 only in hypoxic conditions, in vitro. This hypoxia-selective release of AZD6738 inhibited ATR activation (T1989 and S428 phosphorylation) and subsequently abrogated HIF1a-mediated adaptation of hypoxic cancers cells, thus selectively inducing cell death in 2D and 3D cancer models. Importantly, in normal tissues, ICT10336 is demonstrated to be metabolically stable and less toxic to normal cells than its active parent agent, AZD6738. In addition, ICT10336 exhibited a superior and efficient multicellular penetration ability in 3D tumor models, and selectively eradicated cells at the hypoxic core compared to AZD6738. In summary, the preclinical data demonstrate a new strategy of tumor-targeted delivery of ATR inhibitors with significant potential of enhancing the therapeutic index. / UoB STARTER Fellowship Award

Targeted delivery of drugs directly to the lung epithelium is a promising, though challenging, strategy for the treatment of diseases that affect the lung tissues, such as infections caused by cell-penetrating pathogens, cystic fibrosis, and cancer. With appropriate surface functionality, such as through the attachment of ligands that recognize receptors on cellular surfaces, particulate carriers show improved efficiency in penetrating cells in vitro. A useful class of ligands is produced by many natural human pathogens that infect the respiratory tract. A variety of phylogenetically distinct respiratory bacterial pathogens, such as Haemophilus influenzae, invade host cells in the upper airways by binding of the platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor via lipooligosaccharide (LOS) glycoforms. By expressing host carbohydrate structures, including phosphorylcholine (ChoP), as a terminal structure on the LOS, the bacteria exhibit molecular mimicry of the host and are able to evade the host immune system. The effectiveness of LOS to induce cellular uptake of the bacteria is dependent on the specific glycoform, with higher ChoP content inducing more bacterial adherance into the lung epithelial. These ligands naturally expressed on bacterial cell surfaces can be isolated and utilized as targeting ligands for delivery vehicles. The studies described in this thesis focus on the development of particulate drug carriers coated with LOS bacterial ligands to enhance the targeting and binding of the carriers to the lung epithelium. Three NTHi clinical isolates were screened to select the strain with the highest ChoP level, and NTHi 3198, an isolate from a patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), was selected due to its high ChoP activity. LOS from NTHi 3198 was isolated from the bacterial cell membrane, and its activity verified using dot immunoblot and ELISA techniques. Particles (0.2 and 1 µm) composed of polystyrene or poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) were passively coated with 0.005-50 µg/mL of the isolated LOS 3198 with or without gelatin, coated with gelatin alone, or left uncoated. The LOS coating on the particles was verified using either XPS or ELISA. The association of particles with human bronchial epithelial cells was investigated using two cell culture models, 16HBE14o- and Calu-3, as a function of particle concentration and incubation time. The expression of PAFR on both cells types was confirmed, though the expression of PAFR on 16HBE14o- cells was significantly greater than on Calu-3 cells. Enhancement of 0.2 µm particle-cell association was achieved through coating of the particles with LOS. However, no significant difference in particle-cell association was observed for the 1 µm particles based on particle coating. Control particles of 0.2 µm size, those coated with gelatin (with or without LOS) or uncoated, exhibited low cell binding with a maximum of about 10-18% of cells associated with particles. The ability of the LOS ligand to enhance particle-cell association was coating concentration dependent, with a low coating concentration of LOS having little effect on association, but a concentration 1000-fold higher causing a doubling of the percentage of cells associated with particles at 24 hours. This enhancement was attributed to increased cellular binding of the 0.2 µm particles to the cell surface by confocal microscopy, and was further increased by activating the PAFR prior to incubation with particles. These results suggest the potential application of LOS as a targeting ligand for lung epithelial cells, especially under conditions where PAFR has been activated, such as occurs in lungs infected with Haemophilus influenzae. A significant reduction in particle-cell association was observed when particles were incubated with Calu-3 cells due to the presence of mucus on the cellular surface. This suggests that further optimization of the drug carrier system is needed to efficiently overcome the mucosal fluids.

The use of hydrogel nanoparticles, or nanogels, as targeted delivery vehicles to cancer cells was described. The nanogels were synthesized by free radical precipitation polymerization, with poly(N-isopropylmethacrylamide) as the main monomer, and have a core/shell architecture. The nanogels were near 50 nm in radius, contained fluorescein for visualization, and had an amine-containing shell for bioconjugation, making these particles ideal for delivery studies. The nanogels were conjugated with the YSA (YSAYPDSVPMMSC) peptide, which is an ephrin mimic, allowing for uptake by the EphA2 (erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular) receptor. We have delivered YSA-conjugated nanogels to Hey cells and BG-1 cells, as evidenced by fluorescence microscopy. We have shown that the nanogels can encapsulate siGLO Red Transfection Indicator (siGLO) and deliver the siGLO to Hey cells in vitro. After successful delivery of the non-targeting siGLO, we delivered siRNA for knockdown of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). We have shown protein knockdown from 24-120 h after nanogel delivery, as well as knockdown with different siRNA concentrations delivered to the cells. Furthermore, addition of taxol following EGFR knockdown suggests that the chemosensitivity of the Hey cells is increased. Successful in vitro delivery of the nanogels prompted in vivo studies with the nanogels. The nanogels were used to encapsulate silver nanoclusters for potential bioimaging applications. Targeting of the nanogels to MatrigelTM plugs in mice suggest that the particles hold promise as in vivo delivery agents.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The therapeutic goal of cancer treatment is to trigger selective cell death in cancer cells. To eliminate cancerous cells effectively, the anti–cancer drugs must be targeted to the affected cells. However, anti–cancer drugs are often distributed non–specifically giving rise to systemic toxicities and other adverse effects. Cancer specific peptides are useful cancer targeting agents that can be used for the targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs. Several cancer targeting peptides and some of their corresponding protein targets have been identified. Previous work investigated the specific binding of five of these peptides (p.C, p.H, p6.1, Frop-1 and p.L) conjugated to fluorescent nanoparticles (quantum dots) to a panel of human cell lines, which included four cancerous cell lines (Caco-2, HeLa, HT29 and HepG2) and one non-cancerous cell line (KMST-6). Flow cytometry showed that the p.L peptide preferentially bind to HT29 cells; suggesting that the expression levels of the target for the p.L peptide are higher in these cells. The objective of this study was to make use of target specific functionalised quantum dots (QDs) to deliver Second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases/ Direct AIP binding protein with low PI (Smac/DIABLO) to HT29 cells with the aim of enhancing the effects of pro-apoptotic drugs. Smac/DIABLO is a pro-apoptotic peptide that is able to interact with inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs), thereby inducing pro-apoptotic signalling. Methodology: CdSe/ZnS core-shell QDs were synthesised using the one-pot synthesis method. These QDs were characterised using photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The CdSe/ZnS core-shell QDs were solubilised with L-cysteine (Cys- QDs). The Cys-QDs were bi-conjugated to the p.L peptide and Smac peptide using 1-ethyl-3- (30-dimethylamino) carbodiimide (EDC) chemistry. Cultured HT29 cells were exposed to the 10 | P a g e QD peptide bi-conjugates and fluorescence microscopy was employed to assess targeting and internalisation. The cytotoxicity of the QD peptide bi-conjugates in combinatorial treatment with ceramide was evaluated using the WST-1 Cell Proliferation assay. A commercially available QD with similar chemistry was used to carry out a comparative study to relate the efficiency of the in-house synthesized QD.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a deadly, malignant brain tumor with a poor long-term prognosis. The current median survival is approximately fifteen to seventeen months with the standard of care therapy which includes surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. An important factor contributing to recurrence of GBM is high resistance of GBM cancer stem cells (CSCs), for which a systematically delivered single drug approach will be unlikely to produce a viable cure. Therefore, multi-drug therapies are needed. Currently, only temozolomide (TMZ), which is a DNA alkylator, affects overall survival in GBM patients. CSCs regenerate rapidly and over-express a methyl transferase which overrides the DNA-alkylating mechanism of TMZ, leading to drug resistance. Idasanutlin (RG7388, R05503781) is a potent, selective MDM2 antagonist that additively kills GBM CSCs when combined with diagnostics in a truly theranostic manner for enhancing personalized medicine against GBM. The goal of this thesis was to develop a multi-drug therapy using mutli-functional nanoparticles (NPs) that preferentially target the GBM CSC subpopulation and provide in vivo preclinical imaging capability. Polymer-micellar NPs composed of poly(styrene-<i>b</i>-ethylene oxide) (PS-<i>b</i>-PEO) and poly(lactic-<i>co</i>-glycolic) acid (PLGA) were developed investigating both single and double emulsion fabrication techniques as well as combinatinos of TMZ and RG7388. The NPs were covalently bound to a 15 base-pair CD133 aptamer in order to target a specific epitope on the CD133 antigen expressed on the surface of GBM CSC subpopulation. For theranostic functionality, the NPs were also labelled with a positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer, zirconium-89 (⁸⁹Zr). The NPs maintained a small size of less than 100 nm, a relatively neutral charge and exhibited the ability to produce a cytotoxic effect on CSCs. There was a slight increase in killing with the aptamer-bound NPs compared to those without a targeting agent. This work has provided a potentially therapeutic option for GBM specific for CSC targeting and future in vivo biodistribution