Examensarbetets titel: Obeskattade reserver - Vilka företagsspecifika variablerpåverkar användandet av obeskattade reserver i små företag? Presentationsdatum: 2018-05-29 Ämne, kurs: FÖ2023, Examensarbete för kandidatexamen i företagsekonomiFörfattare: Lina Eriksson, Riina MyrsellHandledare: Åsa GrekExaminator: Christoffer RydlandSyfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att förklara vilka företagsspecifika variabler sompåverkar användandet av obeskattade reserver.Metod: Uppsatsen är ett naturligt experiment. Studiens syfte uppnås genom enkvantitativ analys av data hämtad från Retriever Business.Resultat och slutsats: Uppsatsens regressionsanalys visar att lönsamhet ochbranschtillhörighet påverkar de små företagens avsättningar till obeskattade reserver. / Title of the essay: Untaxed reserves - Which company-specific variables affectthe use of untaxed reserves in small Swedish companies?Presentation date: 2018-05-29Subject, course: FÖ2023, Thesis for Bachelor Degree in Business AdministrationAuthor: Lina Eriksson, Riina MyrsellSupervisor: Åsa GrekExaminer: Christoffer RydlandPurpose: The purpose of this essay is to explain which company-specific variablesthat affect the use of untaxed reserves.Method: The essay is a natural experiment. The purpose of the study is achievedthrough a quantitative analysis of data retrieved from Retriever Business.Result and conclusion: The essay's regression analysis shows that profitability andindustry affiliation affect the small companies' depositions to untaxed reserves.

<p><strong>Syfte:</strong> År 2005 infördes en ny lag, att företagen som gjorde avsättningar till periodiseringsfonder var tvungna att beskatta en schablonintäkt som erhölls från de gjorda avsättningarna. Problemet som uppsatsen berör är huruvida användandet av överavskrivningar hade förändrats efter att lagen tillkom för periodiseringsfonder jämfört med tidigare. Dessutom fokuserades det också på vilka konsekvenser obeskattade reserver har fått före och efter att lagen trädde i kraft. Syftet med examensarbetet är att kartlägga hur företagens vanor kring avskrivningar över plan förändrades efter införandet av schablonintäkten på periodiseringsfonder, och om överavskrivningar kan anses som ett substitut till periodiseringsfonder istället för ett komplement.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Metod: </strong>En undersökning gjordes på företagen som är listade på börslistan ”large cap”. De åren som undersökningen omfattade var åren 2003, 2004, 2005 och 2006. Företagen som användes var redan förutbestämda, varför urvalet blev ett subjektivt urval. Anledningen till det var för att undersökningen ämnade skapa en stor insikt i Sveriges ledande börsföretags resultatplanering. De data som insamlades hämtades från företagens årsredovisningar, och data sammanställdes i tabeller och diagram.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Resultat & slutsats: </strong>Resultatet för undersökningen visade på att företagen hade ett lågt användande av resultatjusteringar redan under år 2003, och det fortsatte att avta allt eftersom åren gick, emellertid fanns en tendens att företagen ökade sitt användande under år 2006.</p><p>Periodiseringsfonder var mer vanliga att använda för alla år förutom år 2005. Med detta som underlag blev slutsatsen att överavskrivningar inte är ett substitut till periodiseringsfonder. Vidare tycks företagen inse att det är billigare för dem att inte använda sig av obeskattade reserver, och betala skatten direkt, eftersom färre gjorde avsättningar.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Förslag till fortsattforskning:</strong> I uppsatsen koncentrerades urvalet till att enbart omfatta Sveriges 60 största börsnoterade företag, och forskningen bör utvidgas till att omfatta ett mer representativt urval i Sveriges företagsklimat. Anledningen till det är för att kunna erhålla en statistisk säkerställning kring användandet av obeskattade reserver.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Uppsatsens bidrag: </strong>Uppsatsen har skapat en större förståelse kring obeskattade reserver och i vilken omfattning de används bland företagens som tenderar att bestämma praxis. Vidare har också djupare kunskap erhållits kring vilken av de två bokslutsdispositionerna som är mest användbar, samt skatters påverkan på företagens valmöjligheter.</p> / <p><strong>Aim:</strong>  By the year 2005 a new law was introduced, the companies was now being charged with an interest income on the tax allocation reserve. The problem this thesis is based on is how the usage of excess depreciation had changed pre and post the new law was established because this tool do not have a fee for its usage. Additionally this thesis also focused on what consequences this law have had on the general usage of untaxed reserves. The purpose with the thesis is to get an understanding if the usage of excess depreciation changed after the tax allocation reserves was being taxed and if excess depreciation can be a substitute to tax allocation reserve instead of being a complement to it.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Method:</strong> A survey was performed, with the companies listed on the Stockholm stock exchange's large cap as the only objects in the survey. The sample of the survey was pre-decided; hence the sample of the survey was subjective, but also because the survey intended to create an insight in the income planning of the leading enterprises of the stock exchange in Stockholm. The years included in the survey were 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006 and the data, foundation to the survey, was gathered from the companies' annual reports. </p><p> </p><p><strong>Result & Conclusions: </strong>The result of the survey showed that the companies had a low usage of appropriations, already back in 2003, which continued to decrease as the years went by however in the year 2006 a tendency was that the companies had increased their usage of untaxed reserves. Tax allocation reserves were more frequently used in all the years except in the year 2005. With regard to this information following conclusions could be made: excess depreciation could not be seen as a substitute to the tax allocation reserve. Moreover, a decrease in the usage of untaxed reserves could also be seen, as the companies realised that it would be cheaper for them not using them.<strong></strong></p><p> </p><p><strong>Suggestions for future research: </strong>The survey was narrowed to just include the sixty largest companies traded on the Stockholm exchange; hence the research should be extended to include a more representative sample of all the companies in Sweden. The reason is to find out if the usage in appropriations has changed to the degrees of being statistically significant.</p><p><strong> </strong></p><p><strong>Contribution of the thesis: </strong>The thesis has produced a greater understanding about appropriations and to what degree the companies who set praxis are using them. Furthermore, a comprehension about which of the two appropriations that is the most useful has been received, and also how much taxes influence the choices made by companies.</p>

<p>Small firms often have inadequate access to the capital necessary for sucessful management. The Swedish Government introduced in the mid-1990s allowance rules that facilitate retention of profit for sole proprietorships and partnership firms. The tax credits arising from the allowances give certain benefits as a source of financing compared to traditional forms of credits. Among the more essential benefits are that the payment for some parts of the tax credit can be put on hold almost indefinitely, or alternatively never be paid. The firms are free to use these means, and the responsibility of future payment of the postponed tax debt stays with the individual firms. The comprehensive purpose of the dissertation may be stated as to increase the understanding of small Swedish firms, especially sole proprietorships, utilizing possibilities for allowances for income smoothing and internal financing. At the beginning the dissertation describes case studies, comprising a smaller selection of microfirms. With a starting-point from the accounted and reported income-tax returns, alternative calculations are made where additional positive tax and finance effects appear possible to obtain. One purpose of these studies is to increase the insight regarding the possibilities of income smoothing and internal financing that arise from utilizing these allowances. </p><p>These studies also illuminate, to what extent and in what way they are being used in reality. Another objective of these studies is to give a more substantive insight into the technics behind the different allowances, appropriation to positive or negative interest rate allocation appropriation or dissolving of tax allocation reserve appropriation or dissolving of “expansion fund” Theories regarding the creation of resources, through building of capital, and theories on financial planning and strategy are studied. The purpose is to find support for the choice of theoretical grounded underlying independent variables that can be used in cross-sectional studies to explain the use of the possibilities of appropriations. Theories of finance that are of greatest interest, in the operationalisation of these variables, are theories that discuss the choices of different financing alternatives for small firms. The “pecking order theory”, describes the firm’s order of priority when choices of finance alternatives are made. The concept of “financial bootstrapping” expands the frame for different forms of financing choices that especially very small firms have at their disposal.</p><p>The last part of the theoretical frame deals with the phenomenon of “income smoothing,” which can be translated as leveling out profits/losses. A number of financial and non-financial variables are supported by and operationalised from these financial theories e.g., return on sales, capital turnover, quick ratio and debt-to-equity ratio, respectively age, gender and line of business. Cross-sectional studies are implemented for the taxation years of 1996 and 1999, on databases that have been extracted from Statistics Sweden. The group of 87,276 sole proprietorships included in the study were required to complete tax returns and pay taxes for the business activity according to the supporting schedule, N2, information from the sole proprietorships’ income statement and balance sheet in an accounting statement that comes with the income tax return form. The possibilities of allowances are considered as dependent variables. The intention of the cross-sectional studies is to survey and describe the utilization of possible allowances, with the support of the financial and non-financial independent variables. The connection of these variables to the decision of sole proprietorships to appropriate to the tax allocation reserve is also summarized in a logistic regression model. A number of theoretically based propositions are made for the purpose of observing how the variables are connected to the chances that sole proprietorships actually appropriate to this form of allowance. Appropriation to the tax allocation reserve stands out as the most practiced form of allowance. The studies also clarify that utilization varies among different forms of allowances, but that not all firms that have the prerequisites to utilize the possibilities really do so to the full. A further utilization of the different possibilities of allowances is often conceivable. For the sole proprietorships that are not utilizing these possibilities, the allowances should be considered eligible as a contribution to internal financing and to increase access to capital.</p>

Small firms often have inadequate access to the capital necessary for sucessful management. The Swedish Government introduced in the mid-1990s allowance rules that facilitate retention of profit for sole proprietorships and partnership firms. The tax credits arising from the allowances give certain benefits as a source of financing compared to traditional forms of credits. Among the more essential benefits are that the payment for some parts of the tax credit can be put on hold almost indefinitely, or alternatively never be paid. The firms are free to use these means, and the responsibility of future payment of the postponed tax debt stays with the individual firms. The comprehensive purpose of the dissertation may be stated as to increase the understanding of small Swedish firms, especially sole proprietorships, utilizing possibilities for allowances for income smoothing and internal financing. At the beginning the dissertation describes case studies, comprising a smaller selection of microfirms. With a starting-point from the accounted and reported income-tax returns, alternative calculations are made where additional positive tax and finance effects appear possible to obtain. One purpose of these studies is to increase the insight regarding the possibilities of income smoothing and internal financing that arise from utilizing these allowances. These studies also illuminate, to what extent and in what way they are being used in reality. Another objective of these studies is to give a more substantive insight into the technics behind the different allowances, appropriation to positive or negative interest rate allocation appropriation or dissolving of tax allocation reserve appropriation or dissolving of “expansion fund” Theories regarding the creation of resources, through building of capital, and theories on financial planning and strategy are studied. The purpose is to find support for the choice of theoretical grounded underlying independent variables that can be used in cross-sectional studies to explain the use of the possibilities of appropriations. Theories of finance that are of greatest interest, in the operationalisation of these variables, are theories that discuss the choices of different financing alternatives for small firms. The “pecking order theory”, describes the firm’s order of priority when choices of finance alternatives are made. The concept of “financial bootstrapping” expands the frame for different forms of financing choices that especially very small firms have at their disposal. The last part of the theoretical frame deals with the phenomenon of “income smoothing,” which can be translated as leveling out profits/losses. A number of financial and non-financial variables are supported by and operationalised from these financial theories e.g., return on sales, capital turnover, quick ratio and debt-to-equity ratio, respectively age, gender and line of business. Cross-sectional studies are implemented for the taxation years of 1996 and 1999, on databases that have been extracted from Statistics Sweden. The group of 87,276 sole proprietorships included in the study were required to complete tax returns and pay taxes for the business activity according to the supporting schedule, N2, information from the sole proprietorships’ income statement and balance sheet in an accounting statement that comes with the income tax return form. The possibilities of allowances are considered as dependent variables. The intention of the cross-sectional studies is to survey and describe the utilization of possible allowances, with the support of the financial and non-financial independent variables. The connection of these variables to the decision of sole proprietorships to appropriate to the tax allocation reserve is also summarized in a logistic regression model. A number of theoretically based propositions are made for the purpose of observing how the variables are connected to the chances that sole proprietorships actually appropriate to this form of allowance. Appropriation to the tax allocation reserve stands out as the most practiced form of allowance. The studies also clarify that utilization varies among different forms of allowances, but that not all firms that have the prerequisites to utilize the possibilities really do so to the full. A further utilization of the different possibilities of allowances is often conceivable. For the sole proprietorships that are not utilizing these possibilities, the allowances should be considered eligible as a contribution to internal financing and to increase access to capital.

Syfte: År 2005 infördes en ny lag, att företagen som gjorde avsättningar till periodiseringsfonder var tvungna att beskatta en schablonintäkt som erhölls från de gjorda avsättningarna. Problemet som uppsatsen berör är huruvida användandet av överavskrivningar hade förändrats efter att lagen tillkom för periodiseringsfonder jämfört med tidigare. Dessutom fokuserades det också på vilka konsekvenser obeskattade reserver har fått före och efter att lagen trädde i kraft. Syftet med examensarbetet är att kartlägga hur företagens vanor kring avskrivningar över plan förändrades efter införandet av schablonintäkten på periodiseringsfonder, och om överavskrivningar kan anses som ett substitut till periodiseringsfonder istället för ett komplement.   Metod: En undersökning gjordes på företagen som är listade på börslistan ”large cap”. De åren som undersökningen omfattade var åren 2003, 2004, 2005 och 2006. Företagen som användes var redan förutbestämda, varför urvalet blev ett subjektivt urval. Anledningen till det var för att undersökningen ämnade skapa en stor insikt i Sveriges ledande börsföretags resultatplanering. De data som insamlades hämtades från företagens årsredovisningar, och data sammanställdes i tabeller och diagram.   Resultat &amp; slutsats: Resultatet för undersökningen visade på att företagen hade ett lågt användande av resultatjusteringar redan under år 2003, och det fortsatte att avta allt eftersom åren gick, emellertid fanns en tendens att företagen ökade sitt användande under år 2006. Periodiseringsfonder var mer vanliga att använda för alla år förutom år 2005. Med detta som underlag blev slutsatsen att överavskrivningar inte är ett substitut till periodiseringsfonder. Vidare tycks företagen inse att det är billigare för dem att inte använda sig av obeskattade reserver, och betala skatten direkt, eftersom färre gjorde avsättningar.   Förslag till fortsattforskning: I uppsatsen koncentrerades urvalet till att enbart omfatta Sveriges 60 största börsnoterade företag, och forskningen bör utvidgas till att omfatta ett mer representativt urval i Sveriges företagsklimat. Anledningen till det är för att kunna erhålla en statistisk säkerställning kring användandet av obeskattade reserver.   Uppsatsens bidrag: Uppsatsen har skapat en större förståelse kring obeskattade reserver och i vilken omfattning de används bland företagens som tenderar att bestämma praxis. Vidare har också djupare kunskap erhållits kring vilken av de två bokslutsdispositionerna som är mest användbar, samt skatters påverkan på företagens valmöjligheter. / Aim:  By the year 2005 a new law was introduced, the companies was now being charged with an interest income on the tax allocation reserve. The problem this thesis is based on is how the usage of excess depreciation had changed pre and post the new law was established because this tool do not have a fee for its usage. Additionally this thesis also focused on what consequences this law have had on the general usage of untaxed reserves. The purpose with the thesis is to get an understanding if the usage of excess depreciation changed after the tax allocation reserves was being taxed and if excess depreciation can be a substitute to tax allocation reserve instead of being a complement to it.   Method: A survey was performed, with the companies listed on the Stockholm stock exchange's large cap as the only objects in the survey. The sample of the survey was pre-decided; hence the sample of the survey was subjective, but also because the survey intended to create an insight in the income planning of the leading enterprises of the stock exchange in Stockholm. The years included in the survey were 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006 and the data, foundation to the survey, was gathered from the companies' annual reports.    Result &amp; Conclusions: The result of the survey showed that the companies had a low usage of appropriations, already back in 2003, which continued to decrease as the years went by however in the year 2006 a tendency was that the companies had increased their usage of untaxed reserves. Tax allocation reserves were more frequently used in all the years except in the year 2005. With regard to this information following conclusions could be made: excess depreciation could not be seen as a substitute to the tax allocation reserve. Moreover, a decrease in the usage of untaxed reserves could also be seen, as the companies realised that it would be cheaper for them not using them.   Suggestions for future research: The survey was narrowed to just include the sixty largest companies traded on the Stockholm exchange; hence the research should be extended to include a more representative sample of all the companies in Sweden. The reason is to find out if the usage in appropriations has changed to the degrees of being statistically significant.   Contribution of the thesis: The thesis has produced a greater understanding about appropriations and to what degree the companies who set praxis are using them. Furthermore, a comprehension about which of the two appropriations that is the most useful has been received, and also how much taxes influence the choices made by companies.

In the understanding of the author tax law and social security laws are studied in general separately. The author agrees with many doctrine authors that find it ‘surprising’ as this is a complete and linked issue, that all remote worker even cross-border/frontier workers face. However, it is worth mentioning here, for future reference and for the understanding in the continuity of this paper, is that remote worker and cross-border - frontier worker have usually different rules surrounding them. Additionally it may seem unusual for the reader to link digitalization of the economy and all its development with remote work; tax law and social security but in the eyes of the author it is all in some way linked. Firstly, developments in the digital world and its impact in economy transcendance in mobility of individuals. Which gives principally, the opportunities for employees to work from a remote place. Secondly, again in the eyes of the author, especially after the courses taken during this master year and in concordance with all the research done for this study; tax law and social security law are linked with each other. In conjunction the author finds it useful to study the issue born from the difficulty of tax allocation in regards to remote worker and the lack of compatibility between the social security legal system and the tax legal system. It is the purpose of this thesis to analyse and study these topics separately and then discuss throughout the paper the issues that may affect individuals especially remote workers but also states especially in our post pandemic states.

Syfte: Syftet med studien är att se hur sänkningen av bolagsskatten har påverkat noterade bolag på Stockholmsbörsen användning av bokslutsdispositioner. Metod: Studien har en kvantitativ metod med deduktiv ansats. Syftet med studien uppnås genom det insamlade datamaterialet, från Retriever Business i form av difference-in-difference regressionen. Resultat och slutsats: Studien visar att bolagsskattesänkningen inte har påverkat bolagen att minska användandet av bokslutsdispositioner. Istället har bolagen ökat användandet av bokslutsdispositioner. / Purpose: The purpose of the study is to see how the reduction of corporate tax has affected the usage of tax allocation reserves by listed companies on the Stockholm Stock Exchange. Method: In the study, a quantitative method with a deductive approach has been used. The purpose of the study is achieved through the collected data from Retriever Business, in the form of the difference-in-difference regression. Result and conclusion: The study shows that a corporate tax reduction has not caused companies to reduce their usage of tax allocation reserves. Instead, companies have increased their usage of tax allocation reserves.