Σκοπός της παρούσης διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η διερεύνηση, μέσω παραμετρικών αναλύσεων, της συμπεριφοράς και απόδοσης ενός δεδομένου Θερμικού Ηλιακού Συστήματος (Θ.Η.Σ.) για την περιοχή της Πάτρας. Στα πλαίσια αυτά, στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας περιλαμβάνεται μία βιβλιογραφική έρευνα, η οποία καλύπτει εκτενώς θέματα όπως η ηλιακή ακτινοβολία, κατηγορίες – εφαρμογές και ανάλυση των κύριων συνιστωσών ολοκληρωμένων Θ.Η.Σ., καθώς επίσης και μεθόδους εξομοίωσης τους. Στο δεύτερο μέρος αναπτύσσεται πρόγραμμα υπολογιστή, το οποίο αφ’ ενός υπολογίζει την ηλιακή ακτινοβολία που προσπίπτει σε μία επιφάνεια στην περιοχή της Πάτρας, αφ’ ετέρου προσδιορίζει, μέσω δύο μεθόδων (αναλυτική και f-chart), τα μηνιαία και ετήσια ποσοστά κάλυψης του φορτίου ενός δεδομένου Θ.Η.Σ.. Τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων αυτών εμφανίζονται στη συνέχεια σε σχετικά γραφήματα παρέχοντας διάφορα χρήσιμα συμπεράσματα. / This project includes bibliographic research related to solar thermal systems and a study of performance, via parametrical analysis, for a solar water heating system installed in a hotel unit located in the region of Patras.

France Télécom possède des armoires de télécommunication dont la puissance est limitée à cause de la dissipation thermique des équipements actifs qui entraîne une augmentation de leur température interne. La puissance des équipements limite le nombre de clients qu'il est possible de connecter aux services des réseaux à hauts débits. En plus de cette contrainte, les armoires sont soumises à des effets liés au climat (ensoleillement) qui peuvent être sévères et difficiles à maîtriser. Ceci nécessite l’intégration de systèmes de refroidissement permettant de maintenir la température des composants en dessous de la limite imposée (55°C). C’est dans cet objectif que ce travail de thèse a été mené au sein du laboratoire FEMTO-ST en collaboration avec le service R&D de France Télécom à Lannion. Le refroidissement par changement de phase est favorisé pour maintenir la température de fonctionnement du système stable et pour être utilisé dans les systèmes à haute densité de puissance. Les boucles diphasiques sont des systèmes de refroidissement pour le contrôle thermique et fonctionnent passivement sans pompage mécanique du fluide caloporteur. Après une étude bibliographique sur les boucles de refroidissement diphasiques et leurs applications, on a constaté que les boucles thermosiphons sont particulièrement adaptées aux applications où le faible coût, l'efficacité énergétique et la fiabilité d’entretien sont souhaités. Cette étude a été conduite en suivant un cahier de charge proposé par France Télécom qui consiste à : (i) développer un modèle numérique permettant de modéliser les transferts échangés entre l’armoire de télécommunication et le milieu ambiant, (ii) mener une étude expérimentale en vue de concevoir une boucle thermosiphon pour le refroidissement d’armoires de télécommunication.Le mémoire de cette thèse montre la limitation des systèmes de refroidissement classiques utilisant des écoulements d’air en convection forcée ou autre fluides sans changement de phase. Un modèle numérique est développé afin de permettre la prédiction des températures à l’entrée des boitiers chauffants pour différentes conditions climatiques. Le choix est porté sur l’utilisation d’une modélisation par réseau nodal. La modélisation est effectuée en tridimensionnel et en régime transitoire. Nous avons également modélisé le rayonnement solaire auquel est soumise l’armoire de télécommunication. Le modèle développé a été validé en effectuant une comparaison entre les résultats issus de la modélisation et ceux obtenus à partir des expériences menées au laboratoire et à la plateforme CLIMA chez France Télécom. Les essais sont effectués en régime transitoire en imposant une puissance électrique et en faisant varier la température ambiante ou la densité de flux thermique solaire. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus ont permis de constituer une base de données. Le deuxième objectif fixé dans le cadre de ce travail de thèse est la conception d’un système de refroidissement sous forme d’une boucle thermosiphon. La contrainte principale qui a guidée cette conception était le fait que la boucle doit refroidir l’armoire et assurer une température d’air à l’entrée des équipements inférieure à la limite imposée par la norme ETSI. Ceci nous a mené à concevoir un prototype de boucle thermosiphon dont la puissance thermique qu’il doit dissiper est imposée. On a montré que ce prototype permet de dissiper des puissances thermiques allant jusqu’à 470 W en utilisant une petite charge de npentane. Nous avons effectué des essais sur le refroidissement du prototype d’armoire de télécommunication en utilisant la boucle thermosiphon légèrement modifiée. On montre que les performances thermiques obtenues en utilisant un mode de refroidissement en boucle thermosiphon sont meilleures. Les boucles thermosiphons semblent intéressantes pour un refroidissement passif de matériels déployés dans un réseau de télécommunication... / France Telecom owns telecommunication cabinets whose power is limited because of the heat dissipation of active devices which leads to increased internal temperature. Power equipment limits the number of clients that can connect to networks services with high data rates. In addition to this constraint, the cabinets are subject to climate-related impacts (sunlight) that can be severe and difficult to master. This requires the integration of cooling systems to maintain the temperature of components below the limit (55 ° C). It is with this aim that this work was conducted in the laboratory Femto-ST in collaboration with the R & D department of France Telecom in Lannion.Cooling the phase change is promoted to maintain the operating temperature of the stable and system for use in systems with high power density. The loops are two-phase cooling systems for thermal control and operate passively without mechanical pumping of the coolant.After a literature review on two-phase cooling loops and their applications, it was found that the thermosyphon loops are particularly suitable for applications where low cost, energy efficiency and reliability maintenance are desired. This study was conducted by following a set of specifications proposed by France Telecom which involves: (i) develop a numerical model to model transfers exchanged between the cabinet and the telecommunications environment, (ii) conduct an experimental study to design a thermosyphon loop for cooling telecommunication cabinets.The memory of this thesis shows the limitation of conventional cooling systems using air flow forced convection or other fluids without phase change. A numerical model is developed to enable the prediction of temperatures at the inlet of heated enclosures for different climatic conditions. The choice is focused on the use of a nodal network modeling. The modeling is done by three-dimensional and transient. We also modeled the solar radiation, which applies to the telecommunications closet. The developed model was validated by comparison between the results of modeling and those obtained from experiments in the laboratory and platform CLIMA at France Telecom. The tests are performed by imposing transient electrical power and varying the temperature or heat flux density solar. All the results obtained allowed to establish a database.The second goal as part of this thesis is the design of a cooling system as a thermosyphon loop. The main constraint has guided this design was that the loop needs to cool the cabinet and provide air temperature at the inlet of the equipment below the limit imposed by the ETSI. This led us to design a prototype of thermosyphon loop with a heat output that must be dissipated is imposed. We showed that this prototype is used to dissipate the heat ratings up to 470 W using a small load of npentane.We conducted tests on the prototype cooling telecommunication cabinet using slightly modified thermosyphon loop. We show that the thermal performance obtained by using a cooling mode loop thermosyphon are better. Thermosyphon loops seem interesting for passive cooling of equipment deployed in a telecommunications network. Indeed, being able to use an air conditioning system independent and requires no energy should be promoted in a reduction of overall energy consumption.

A novel surface structure comprising dendritically ordered nano-particles of copper was developed during the duration of this thesis research project. A high current density electrodeposition process, where hydrogen bubbles functioned as a dynamic mask for the materials deposition, was used as a basic fabrication method. A post processing annealing treatment was further developed to stabilize and enhance the mechanical stability of the structure. The structure was studied quite extensively in various pool boiling experiments in refrigerants; R134a and FC-72. Different parameters were investigated, such as; thickness of the porous layer, presence of vapor escape channels, annealed or non-annealed structure. Some of the tests were filmed with a high speed camera, from which visual observation were made as well as quantitative bubble data extracted. The overall heat transfer coefficient in R134a was enhanced by about an order of magnitude compared to a plain reference surface and bubble image data suggests that both single- and two-phase heat transfer mechanisms were important to the enhancement. A quantitative and semi-empirical boiling model was presented where the main two-phase heat transfer mechanism inside the porous structure was assumed to be; micro-layer evaporation formed by an oscillating vapor-liquid meniscus front with low resistance vapor transport through escape channels. Laminar liquid motion induced by the oscillating vapor front was suggested as the primary single-phase heat transfer mechanism. The structure was applied to a standard plate heat exchanger evaporator with varying hydraulic diameter in the refrigerant channel. Again, a 10 times improved heat transfer coefficient in the refrigerant channel was recorded, resulting in an improvement of the overall heat transfer coefficient with over 100%. A superposition model was used to evaluate the results and it was found that for the enhanced boiling structure, variations of the hydraulic diameter caused a change in the nucleate boiling mechanism, which accounted for the largest effect on the heat transfer performance. For the standard heat exchanger, it was mostly the convective boiling mechanism that was affected by the change in hydraulic diameter. The structure was also applied to the evaporator surface in a two-phase thermosyphon with R134a as working fluid. The nucleate boiling mechanism was found to be enhanced with about 4 times and high speed videos of the enhanced evaporator reveal an isolated bubble flow regime, similar to that of smooth channels with larger hydraulic diameters. The number and frequency of the produced bubbles were significantly higher for the enhanced surface compared to that of the plain evaporator. This enhanced turbulence and continuous boiling on the porous structure resulted in decreased oscillations in the thermosyphon for the entire range of heat fluxes. / QC 20111111

Проведен анализ перспектив применения и достоинств теплообменников на базе закрытых двухфазных термосифонов по сравнению с распространёнными аналогами других конструкций и теоретических ограничений теплового потока в термосифонных теплообменниках, сформулированы требования к исследовательскому стенду. Проведено сравнение коэффициентов теплопередачи, полученные аналитическим методом, с помощью компьютерного моделирования и экспериментальным путём. / Analysis of prospects of application and advantages of heat exchangers on the basis of closed two-phase thermosyphones compared to common analogues of other designs and theoretical limitations of heat flow in thermosyphon heat exchangers was carried out, requirements to research bench were formulated. Heat transfer coefficients obtained by analytical method are compared by computer simulation and experimental method.

[pt] Diante dos constantes avanços da tecnologia os dispositivos eletrônicos vêm passando por um processo de miniaturização, ao mesmo tempo em que sustentam um aumento de potência. Essa tendência se mostra um desafio para seu gerenciamento térmico, uma vez que os sistemas de resfriamento típicos para eletrônicos utilizam ar como fluido de trabalho, e o seu baixo coeficiente de transferência de calor limita sua capacidade de atender às necessidades térmicas da indústria atual. Nesse sentido, o resfriamento bifásico tem sido considerado uma solução promissora para fornecer resfriamento adequado para dispositivos eletrônicos. Circuitos de termossifão bifásico combinam a tecnologia de resfriamento bifásico com sua inerente natureza passiva, já que o sistema não requer uma bomba para fornecer circulação para seu fluido de trabalho, graças às forças da gravidade e de empuxo. Um dissipador de calor de microcanais, localizado bem em cima do dispositivo eletrônico, dissipa o calor gerado. Isto o torna uma solução de baixo custo e energia. Além disso, ter um circuito de termossifão operando com um refrigerante de baixo GWP, como o R-1234yf, resulta em baixo impacto para o meio ambiente, uma vez que é um refrigerante ecologicamente correto e o sistema tem baixo ou nenhum consumo de energia. Este trabalho fornece um modelo numérico detalhado para a simulação de um circuito de termossifão bifásico, operando em condições de regime permanente. O circuito compreende um evaporador (chip e dissipador de calor de micro-aletas), um riser, um condensador refrigerado a água de tubo duplo e um downcomer. Equações fundamentais e constitutivas foram estabelecidas para cada componente. Um método numérico de diferenças finitas, 1-D para o escoamento do fluido por todos os componentes do sistema, e 2-D para a condução de calor no chip e evaporador foi empregado. O modelo foi validado com dados experimentais para o refrigerante R134a, mostrando uma discrepância em relação ao fluxo de massa em torno de 6 por cento, para quando o sistema operava sob regime dominado pela gravidade. A pressão de entrada do evaporador prevista apresentou um erro relativo máximo de 4,8 por cento quando comparada aos resultados experimentais. Além disso, a maior discrepância da temperatura do chip foi inferior a 1 grau C. Simulações foram realizadas para apresentar uma comparação de desempenho entre o R134a e seu substituto ecologicamente correto, R1234yf. Os resultados mostraram que quando o sistema operava com R134a, ele trabalhava com uma pressão de entrada no evaporador mais alta, assim como, com um fluxo de massa mais alto. Por causa disso, o R134a foi capaz de manter a temperatura do chip mais baixa do que o R1234yf. No entanto, essa diferença na temperatura do chip foi levemente inferior a 1 grau C, mostrando o R1234yf como comparável em desempenho ao R134a. Além disso, o fator de segurança da operação do sistema foi avaliado para ambos os refrigerantes, e para um fluxo de calor máximo do chip de 33,1 W/cm2, R1234yf mostrou um fator de segurança acima de 3. Isso significa que o circuito de termossifão pode operar com segurança abaixo do ponto crítico de fluxo de calor. Dada a investigação sobre a comparação de desempenho dos refrigerantes R134a e R1234yf, os resultados apontaram o R1234yf como um excelente substituto ecologicamente correto para o R134a, para operação em um circuito de termossifão bifásico. / [en] Given the constant advances in technology, electronic devices have been going through a process of miniaturization while sustaining an increase in power. This trend proves to be a challenge for thermal management since commonly electronic cooling systems are air-based, so that the low heat transfer coefficient of air limits its capacity to keep up with the thermal needs of today s industry. In this respect, two-phase cooling has been regarded as a promising solution to provide adequate cooling for electronic devices. Two-phase thermosyphon loops combine the technology of two-phase cooling with its inherent passive nature, as the system does not require a pump to provide circulation for its working fluid, thanks to gravity and buoyancy forces. A micro-channel heat sink located right on top of the electronic device dissipates the heat generated. This makes for an energy and cost-efficient solution. Moreover, having a thermosyphon loop operating with a low GWP refrigerant such as R-1234yf results in low impact for the environment since it is an environmentally friendly refrigerant, and the system has low to none energy consumption. This work provides a detailed numerical model for the simulation of a two-phase thermosyphon loop operating under steady-state conditions. The loop comprises an evaporator (chip and micro-fin heat sink), a riser, a tube-in-tube water-cooled condenser and a downcomer. Fundamental and constitutive equations were established for each component. A finite-difference method, 1-D for the flow throughout the thermoysphon s components and 2-D for the heat conduction in the evaporator and chip, was employed. The model was validated against experimental data for refrigerant R134a, showing a mass flux discrepancy of around 6 percent for when the system operated under gravity dominant regime. The predicted evaporator inlet pressure showed a maximum relative error of 4.8 percent when compared to the experimental results. Also, the chip temperature s largest discrepancy was lower than 1 C degree. Simulations were performed to present a performance comparison between R134a and its environmentally friendly substitute, R1234yf. Results showed that when the system operated with R134a, it yielded a higher evaporator inlet pressure as well as a higher mass flux. Because of that, R134a was able to keep the chip temperature lower than R1234yf. Yet, that difference in chip temperature was slightly lower than 1 C degree, showing R1234yf as comparable in performance to R134a. In addition, the safety factor of the system s operation was evaluated for both refrigerants, and for a maximum chip heat flux of 33.1 W/cm2, R1234yf showed a safety factor above 3. This means the thermosyphon loop can operate safely under the critical heat flux. Given the investigation on the performance comparison of refrigerants R134a and R1234yf, results pointed to R1234yf being a great environmentally friendly substitute for R134a for the two-phase thermosyphon loop.