Exposure to solar radiation, particularly its ultraviolet (UV), has a variety of harmful effects on human health. Some of these effects include sunburn cell formations, erythema, edema, melanoma, photoaging of the skin, and immune suppression. A plant that has been widely used in tropical folk medicine for a number of conditions is the Morinda citrifolia Linn. (Rubiaceae), commonly known as noni. The beneficial photoprotective effects of topical formulations based on extract from Morinda citrifolia leaves, have not yet been investigated. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the potential benefits of M. citrifolia topical application on the dorsal skin of mice, exposed to UVA-UVB light. Firstly, the absorption spectrum of the formulations extracts (10 and 15%) was evaluated by spectroscopy. The spectrum showed peaks at 200 nm and at 240 nm and absorption in the UVA and UVB regions. After 7 days of treatment and exposition to UVA-UVB light, the thickness, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), erythema and histological alterations were evaluated. The results from in vivo effectiveness showed that the thickness, TEWL values and erythema indexes were significantly decreased by treatment with formulations containing the extract. The histological measurements in hematoxilina eosin showed that in the non-irradiated group showed that the epidermis was represented by a thin, and continuous surface. No inflammatory infiltrate were found in the dermal tissues. Both irradiated and vehicle groups presented increased epidermal thickness associated to hyperorthokeratosis. The papillary dermis exhibited intense inflammatory infiltrate, mainly composed of lymphocytes, mild interstitial edema and prominent capillary and venular hyperemia. The treated groups presented remarkable reduction in the inflammatory content, as well as less expressive hyperemia. In the Sirius Red, the irradiated and vehicle groups, papillary dermis showed the presence of a gross, thick, parallel-arranged, collagen fibers. Both treated groups (10 and 15% formulations) presented similar features regarding the collagenization pattern, showing a mixture of yellowish type I and greenish type III collagen fibers. The interfibrillary spaces were more evident than in irradiated and vehicle groups. Such morphological appearances were very similar to that observed in non irradiated group. Areas treated with the formulation containing Morinda citrifolia extract (10% and 15%) have enhanced protection against UV radiation. Finally, the extract was evaluated on murine malignant melanoma (cell line B16F10) in order to examine their cytotoxic effects on malignany cells. The extract at concentrations of 0.05 to 12.8 mg/mL did not show any cytotoxic effects in the B16F10 cell line. These can suggest that the extract showed no potential anti cancer in melanoma cells, and the extract have only photoprotection effects. In conclusion, the results showed that the formulations containing the extract protected the skin against UV-induced damage. / A exposição à radiação solar, particularmente a radiação ultravioleta (UV), tem uma variedade de efeitos nocivos à saúde humana. Alguns destes efeitos incluem formações de queimaduras solares, eritema, edema, melanoma, fotoenvelhecimento da pele e da supressão imune. Uma planta medicinal que tem sido vastamente utilizada para as mais variadas formas de manutenção da saúde, tem sido a Morinda citrifolia Linn. (Rubiaceae), comumente conhecida como noni. Os efeitos fotoprotetores de formulações para uso tópico com o extrato aquoso das folhas da Morinda citrifolia não foram investigados previamente. Assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo estudar os benefícios potenciais da M. citrifolia em aplicação tópica na pele dorsal de camundongos expostos à radiação UVA-UVB. Primeiramente, o espectro de absorção das formulações com extrato (10% e 15%) foi avaliada por espectroscopia. O espectro mostrou bandas a 200 nm e em 240 nm e em regiões de absorção no UVA e UVB. In vivo, após 7 dias de tratamento e exposição à radição UVA-UVB, a espessura, perda transepidérmica de água (TEWL), eritema e alterações histológicas foram avaliadas. Os resultados de eficácia in vivo mostraram que os valores de espessura, TEWL e índices de eritema foram significativamente reduzidos pelo tratamento com as formulações contendo o extrato, comparados aos grupos controle irradiado e veículo irradiado. As medições histológicas em hematoxilina eosina mostraram que no grupo não irradiado a epiderme foi representada por uma superfície delgada e contínua. Não foram encontrados infiltrados inflamatórios nos tecidos dérmicos. Ambos os grupos irradiados e veículo apresentaram aumento da espessura da epiderme e hiperortoqueratose. A derme papilar apresentou intenso infiltrado inflamatório, composto principalmente de linfócitos, edema intersticial leve e hiperemia capilar e venular proeminente. Os grupos tratados apresentaram redução notável no conteúdo inflamatório e da hiperemia. Na coloração picrossírius, nos grupos controle irradiado e veículo irradiado, a derme papilar mostrou a presença de feixe de fibras colágenas espessas, grosseiras, de comprimento variável e disposição paralela. Ambos os grupos tratados (formulações de 10% e 15%) apresentaram características semelhantes quanto ao padrão de colagenização, mostrando uma mistura de fibras de colágeno tipo I e fibras de colágeno tipo III. Os espaços interfibrilares nos grupos tratados foram mais evidentes que nos grupos irradiados e do veículo. Tais aspectos morfológicos foram semelhantes às observadas no grupo não irradiado. Ficou evidente, através da morfologia e histologia, que as áreas tratadas com a formulação contendo Morinda citrifolia (10% e 15%) tiveram uma maior proteção contra a radiação UV Finalmente, o extrato foi avaliado em melanoma (linha de células B16F10), a fim de examinar os seus efeitos citotóxicos em células malígnas. O extrato com concentrações de 0,05 a 12,8 mg/mL não mostrou quaisquer efeitos citotóxicos na linhagem de células B16F10. Estes podem sugerir que o extrato não combate danos já estabelecidos em células, tendos efeitos apenas de fotoproteção, dos quais os mecanismos ainda precisam de estudo mais aprofundado. Em conclusão, os resultados demonstraram que as formulações contendo o extrato protegem a pele contra danos induzidos por radiação UV.

The interest of drug delivery via the skin is progressively increasing due to its convenience and affordability. However, the skin has an effective barrier function which hinders drugs to penetrate. This can be overcome, using topical formulations, which contain vehicles optimized for penetration into skin or permeation through skin into underlying tissues or blood stream. In development of transdermal drugs, ex-vivo skin models are frequently used for permeability studies. However, these models may suffer from limited reproducibility, due to their biological variability, and are related to ethical issues. This has led to development of in-vitro skin models. These new skin models need to be verified by comparison to the existing models before applied in drug studies. In this project, penetration and permeation of proteins and small molecules was studied using an ex-vivo pig skin model. The effect of topical formulations and penetration enhancers was also investigated. The results showed a significant increase in penetration and permeation in the absence of stratum corneum, proving its barrier effect. While no significant differences could be seen regarding molecule size in the presence of stratum corneum (intact skin model), there was significantly less permeation measured for large protein molecules tested than for smaller tested compounds in the absence of the stratum corneum (damaged skin model). The permeation and penetration were slightly increased in presence of the penetration enhancing limonene oil. / Intresset för läkemedel som tas upp genom huden ökar ständigt eftersom administreringen är både bekväm och lättillgänglig. Däremot har huden en effektiv barriärfunktion, vilket hindrar penetration av läkemedlen. För att lösa detta problem kan läkemedlen presenteras i olika formuleringar, vilka innehåller transportmedel anpassade för att öka penetrationen in i huden eller permeationen genom huden, till underliggande vävnad samt blodomloppet. Vid utvecklandet av läkemedel som ska tas upp genom huden används ofta ex-vivo hudmodeller i penetrations- och permeationsstudier. Dessa modeller kan emellertid ha otillräcklig reproducerbarhet, på grund av biologisk variation, samt är kopplade till etiska problem. Detta har lett till utvecklandet av hudmodeller av in-vitro typ. Dessa nya hudmodeller måste verifieras genom jämförelse med existerande modeller, innan de används i läkemedelsstudier. I det här projektet studerades penetration och permeation av proteiner och små molekyler i en ex-vivo hudmodell från gris. Effekten av olika formuleringar och penetrationsförstärkare undersöktes också. Resultaten visade en signifikant ökning av penetration och permeation vid avsaknad av stratum corneum, vilket påvisar dess barriärfunktion. Samtidigt som ingen märkbar skillnad gällande molekylstorlek kunde urskiljas vid närvaro av stratum corneum (intakt hudmodell), var permeationen av större molekyler tydligt minskad i jämförelse med små molekyler vid avsaknad av stratum corneum (skadad hudmodell). Både penetrationen och permeationen var svagt förhöjda vid närvaro av penetrationsförstärkaren limonen.

A pele é exposta a inúmeros agentes, dentre os quais destaca-se a radiação ultravioleta (RUV), que pode energizar os cromóforos celulares da pele e estes reagindo com o oxigênio molecular podem resultar na geração das espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs). Nestas circunstâncias, mesmo possuindo um sistema de defesa antioxidante, a concentração de radicais livres pode aumentar, rompendo o equilíbrio pró oxidante/antioxidante, levando ao estresse oxidativo na pele. Neste contexto, o uso tópico de formulações adicionadas de substâncias naturais tem sido um eficiente modo para enriquecer o sistema protetor cutâneo endógeno, reduzindo os danos oxidativos causados pela RUV na pele. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o potencial fotoquimioprotetor do extrato e da fração de média polaridade de Inga edulis e desenvolver formulações estáveis física e quimicamente a fim de selecionar a que prover melhor liberação, penetração e retenção dos componentes do extrato e/ou da fração na epiderme viável. A partir do perfil cromatográfico foi possível observar que o extrato possui compostos comuns à fração e alguns deles foram identificados, sendo o composto vicenina-2 o escolhido para ser monitorado nos estudos de penetração e retenção cutânea. Dentre as formulações estudadas a formulação a base de Hostacerin SAF® adicionada da fração foi a que proveu a maior penetração/retenção do composto vicenina-2 e de compostos antioxidantes na epiderme viável e também foi considerada estável por todos os parâmetros avaliados no estudo de estabilidade preliminar. A fração de Inga edulis, veiculada por esta formulação, mostrou alta atividade antioxidante frente aos métodos estudados, apresentou baixa citotoxidade em cultura celular de fibroblastos, sendo a quantidade citotóxica estabelecida muito acima da quantidade de vicenina-2 retida na epiderme viável. A fração também apresentou fotoestabilidade frente a altas doses de radiação UVA e UVB quanto à citotoxidade, capacidade de reduzir o radical sintético DPPH? e de sequestrar o ânion superóxido in vitro. Assim, a formulação gel-creme com Hostacerin SAF® adicionada de 1% da fração de média polaridade do Inga edulis mostrou ser muito promissora e deve ser melhor estudada, visando futura aplicação como formulação fotoquimiopreventiva. / The skin is exposed to numerous agents, among which stands out the ultraviolet radiation (UVR) that can energize the chromophores of cell skin and these react with molecular oxygen resulting in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In these circumstances, the endogenous antioxidant defense system would be impaired leading to a pro oxidant state named oxidative stress. In this context, the topical formulations added with natural substances has been an efficient way to aid endogenous skin protective system, minimizing the oxidative damage caused by UV rays. Thus, the aim of the present work was to study the potential photochemopreventive activity of the extract and medium polarity fraction of Inga edulis and develop formulations physically and chemically stable in order to select the penetration and retention of the components of the extract and / or fraction oin the viable epidermis. The chromatographic profiles showed that the some compounds of the extract are also present in the fraction and some of them were identified. The compound vicenin-2 was chosen to be monitored in studies of cutaneous penetration and retention. Among the formulations studied, the formulation Hostacerin SAF® added to the fraction provided the highest penetration / retention of the compound vicenin-2 and antioxidant compounds in viable epidermis and also was considered stable at all parameters evaluated in the study of preliminary stability. The fraction of Inga edulis, conveyed by this formulation, showed strong antioxidant activity in the methods studied and showed low cytotoxicity in cell culture of fibroblasts. The cytotoxicity concentration was greater than the amount of vicenin-2 retained in viable epidermis. The fraction also showed photostability when it was exposed to high doses of UVA and UVB. The irradiated fraction showed no change in cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity. Thus, the formulation Hostacerin SAF® added with 1% of medium polarity fraction of Inga edulis proved very promising and should be further studied for a future application in photochemoprevention.

A pele é exposta a inúmeros agentes, dentre os quais destaca-se a radiação ultravioleta (RUV), que pode energizar os cromóforos celulares da pele e estes reagindo com o oxigênio molecular podem resultar na geração das espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs). Nestas circunstâncias, mesmo possuindo um sistema de defesa antioxidante, a concentração de radicais livres pode aumentar, rompendo o equilíbrio pró oxidante/antioxidante, levando ao estresse oxidativo na pele. Neste contexto, o uso tópico de formulações adicionadas de substâncias naturais tem sido um eficiente modo para enriquecer o sistema protetor cutâneo endógeno, reduzindo os danos oxidativos causados pela RUV na pele. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o potencial fotoquimioprotetor do extrato e da fração de média polaridade de Inga edulis e desenvolver formulações estáveis física e quimicamente a fim de selecionar a que prover melhor liberação, penetração e retenção dos componentes do extrato e/ou da fração na epiderme viável. A partir do perfil cromatográfico foi possível observar que o extrato possui compostos comuns à fração e alguns deles foram identificados, sendo o composto vicenina-2 o escolhido para ser monitorado nos estudos de penetração e retenção cutânea. Dentre as formulações estudadas a formulação a base de Hostacerin SAF® adicionada da fração foi a que proveu a maior penetração/retenção do composto vicenina-2 e de compostos antioxidantes na epiderme viável e também foi considerada estável por todos os parâmetros avaliados no estudo de estabilidade preliminar. A fração de Inga edulis, veiculada por esta formulação, mostrou alta atividade antioxidante frente aos métodos estudados, apresentou baixa citotoxidade em cultura celular de fibroblastos, sendo a quantidade citotóxica estabelecida muito acima da quantidade de vicenina-2 retida na epiderme viável. A fração também apresentou fotoestabilidade frente a altas doses de radiação UVA e UVB quanto à citotoxidade, capacidade de reduzir o radical sintético DPPH? e de sequestrar o ânion superóxido in vitro. Assim, a formulação gel-creme com Hostacerin SAF® adicionada de 1% da fração de média polaridade do Inga edulis mostrou ser muito promissora e deve ser melhor estudada, visando futura aplicação como formulação fotoquimiopreventiva. / The skin is exposed to numerous agents, among which stands out the ultraviolet radiation (UVR) that can energize the chromophores of cell skin and these react with molecular oxygen resulting in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In these circumstances, the endogenous antioxidant defense system would be impaired leading to a pro oxidant state named oxidative stress. In this context, the topical formulations added with natural substances has been an efficient way to aid endogenous skin protective system, minimizing the oxidative damage caused by UV rays. Thus, the aim of the present work was to study the potential photochemopreventive activity of the extract and medium polarity fraction of Inga edulis and develop formulations physically and chemically stable in order to select the penetration and retention of the components of the extract and / or fraction oin the viable epidermis. The chromatographic profiles showed that the some compounds of the extract are also present in the fraction and some of them were identified. The compound vicenin-2 was chosen to be monitored in studies of cutaneous penetration and retention. Among the formulations studied, the formulation Hostacerin SAF® added to the fraction provided the highest penetration / retention of the compound vicenin-2 and antioxidant compounds in viable epidermis and also was considered stable at all parameters evaluated in the study of preliminary stability. The fraction of Inga edulis, conveyed by this formulation, showed strong antioxidant activity in the methods studied and showed low cytotoxicity in cell culture of fibroblasts. The cytotoxicity concentration was greater than the amount of vicenin-2 retained in viable epidermis. The fraction also showed photostability when it was exposed to high doses of UVA and UVB. The irradiated fraction showed no change in cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity. Thus, the formulation Hostacerin SAF® added with 1% of medium polarity fraction of Inga edulis proved very promising and should be further studied for a future application in photochemoprevention.

Siekiant pagreitinti 5-aminolevulino rūgšties (5-ALA) skvarbą į (pro) odą ir sudaryti terapines fotodinaminiam gydymui tinkamas jos koncentracijas, įvertinta 5-ALA ir naujo provaisto skvarba į (pro) odą iš įvairių vietinio poveikio vaisto formų. Atlikta naujo provaisto 2-(dimetilamino)-etil-5-amino-4-oksopentanoato (DMAE-ALA) sintezė, ištirtos jo charakteristikos. Nustatytas susintetinto provaisto stabilumas įvairių pH verčių buferiniuose vandeniniuose tirpaluose ir odos esterazių poveikyje, įrodytas provaisto tinkamumas pernašai į (pro) odą. Atlikti 5-ALA ir du teigiamus krūvius vaisto formoje įgaunančio provaisto jontoforetinės ir pasyvios pernašos iš buferinių tirpalų ir celiuliozinės bei polivinilkarboksilinės kilmės polimerinių gelių į (pro) odą tyrimai in vitro. Patvirtintas reikšmingas skatinamas jontoforezės poveikis krūvinių molekulių pernašai į (pro) odą ir krūvio dydžio reikšmė elektros srovės skatinamos pernašos greičiui. Ištirta vaisto formų, pagamintų iš polivilinkarboksilinės kilmės ir celiuliozės polimerų, kokybė ir jų pasyvioji bei jontoforetinė pernaša. Įrodyta, kad provaisto įterpimui naudojant celiuliozės polimerų pagrindu pagamintus gelius, pasiekiama didžiausia 5-ALA pernaša. Nustatyta, kad du krūvius turintis 5-ALA provaistas į (pro) odą skverbėsi geriau negu vieną krūvį įgaunantys arba elektriškai neutralūs 5-ALA dariniai. Sudarytos rekomendacijos, skirtos pasiekti didžiausiai 5-ALA pernašai į (pro) odą. / Passive and iontophoretic delivery of 5-aminolevulinic acid and newly synthesized prodrug into (through) skin from various topical formulations was evaluated, while trying to accelerate the penetration of 5-ALA and its derivative into (through) skin and to generate the therapeutic concentration suitable for photodynamic therapy. A new prodrug 2-(dimethylamino)-ethyl-5-amino-4-oxopentanoate (DMAE-ALA) was synthesized, its characteristics have been evaluated. Stability of the prodrug in aqueous solutions of various pH values and at exposure with skin esterases (dermal and epidermal stability) has been evaluated. Suitability of the prodrug for topical delivery was confirmed. Studies for the evaluation of 5-ALA and DMAE-ALA passive and active delivery from cutaneous solutions, cellulose and polyvinyl carboxy polymer gels into (through) skin in vitro have been performed. Significant effect of iontophoresis on delivery of charged molecules into (through) skin as well as the significance of the charge of the molecule on the delivery rate has been confirmed. It has been shown that the insertion of the prodrug into cellulose-based polymer gels produces the highest amount of 5-ALA delivered into (through) skin. It was determined that the two-charged prodrug DMAE-ALA penetrated into (through) the skin more efficiently than single-charged or electrically neutral 5-ALA derivatives. Recommendations for achieving most efficient 5-ALA delivery into (through) the skin have been composed.

Tactile perception is considered an important contributor to the overall consumer experience of a product. However, what physical properties that create the specifics of tactile perception, are still not completely understood. This thesis has researched how many dimensions that are required to differentiate the surfaces perceptually, and then tried to explain these dimensions in terms of physical properties, by interconnecting human perception measurements with various physical measurements. The tactile perception was assessed by multidimensional scaling or magnitude estimation, in which methods human participants assign numbers to how similar pairs of surfaces are perceived or to the relative quantity of a specified perceptual attribute, such as softness, smoothness, coarseness and coolness. The role of friction and surface texture in tactile perception was investigated in particular detail, because typically tactile exploration involves moving (at least) one finger over a textured surface. A tactile approach for measuring friction was developed by means of moving a finger over the surfaces, mounted on a force sensor. The contribution of finger friction to tactile perception was investigated for surfaces of printing papers and tissue papers, as well as for model surfaces with controlled topography. The overarching research goal of this thesis was to study, systematically, the role of texture in tactile perception of surfaces. The model surfaces displayed a sinusoidal texture with a characteristic wavelength and amplitude, fabricated by surface wrinkling and replica molding techniques. A library of surfaces was manufactured, ranging in wavelengths from 270 nm up to 100 µm and in amplitudes from 7 nm up to 6 µm. These surfaces were rigid and cleanable and could therefore be reused among the participants. To my knowledge, this is the first time in a psychophysical experiment, that the surface texture has been controlled over several orders of magnitude in length scale, without simultaneously changing other material properties of the stimuli. The finger friction coefficient was found to decrease with increasing aspect ratio (amplitude/wavelength) of the model surfaces and also with increasing average surface roughness of the printing papers. Analytical modeling of the finger’s interaction with the model surfaces shows how the friction coefficient increases with the real contact area, and that the friction mechanism is the same on both the nanoscale and microscale. The same interaction mechanism also explains the friction characteristics of tissue paper. Furthermore, it was found that the perceptions of smoothness, coarseness, coolness and dryness are satisfactorily related to the real contact area at the finger-surface interface.  It is shown that it is possible to discern perceptually among both printing papers and tissue papers, and this differentiation is based on either two or three underlying dimensions. Rough/smooth and thin/thick were the two main dimensions of surface feel found for the printing papers, whereas friction and wavelength were strongly related to the perceptual cues employed in scaling the model surfaces. These experimental results support the duplex theory of texture perception, which holds that both a “spatial sense”; used to discriminate the roughest textures from the others, and a “vibration sense”; used to discriminate among the smoother textures, are involved. The perception of what is considered rough and smooth depends on the experimental stimulus context. It is concluded that friction is important for human differentiation of surface textures below about 10 µm in surface roughness, and for larger surface textures, friction is less important or can even be neglected. The finger friction experiments also allowed the following conclusions to be drawn: (i) The interindividual variation in friction coefficients is too large to allow direct comparison; however, the trends in relative friction coefficients for a group of participants are the same. (ii) Lipids are transferred to the test surface of study, and this lowers the friction. (iii) Many of the studies point to a characteristic frequency during sliding of about 30 Hz, which is both characteristic of the resonance frequency of skin and the expected frequency associated with the fingerprints. (iv) The applied load in surface interrogation is in fact regulated in response to the friction force. The limits in tactile perception were indirectly researched by similarity scaling experiments on the model surfaces. Wrinkle wavelengths of 760 nm and 870 nm could be discriminated from untextured reference surfaces, whereas 270 nm could not. The amplitude of the wrinkles so discriminated was approximately 10 nm, suggesting that nanotechnology may well have a role to play in haptics and tactile perception. / Taktil perception bidrar starkt till den sammantagna upplevelsen av en produkt, men hur materials olika ytegenskaper påverkar och styr perceptionen är ännu inte helt klart. Den här avhandlingen undersöker hur många och vilka egenskaper som är viktiga när känslan mellan två ytor jämförs. Tillvägagångssättet är tvärvetenskapligt där fysikaliska mätningar kopplas ihop med perceptions mätningar där människor används som instrument. Två typer av perceptionsförsök har utförts, multidimensionell skalning där försökspersoner sätter siffror på hur lika två ytor känns, samt magnitud estimation där i stället intensiteten på specifika perceptuella storheter som t.ex. upplevt lenhet, upplevd mjukhet och upplevd strävhet bedömdes. Eftersom taktil perception innebär kontakt samt relativ rörelse mellan hud och ytor, har fokus i avhandlingen varit att undersöka hur friktion och ytans struktur (ytråhet) påverkar och bidrar till den taktila perceptionen. Förutom fysikaliska mätningar på friktion och ytstruktur har värmekonduktivitet, mjukhet samt olika standard mätningar inom pappersindustrin mätts. En metod för att mäta friktion mellan ett finger och olika ytor har utvecklats för att i möjligaste mån återspegla friktionskomponenten i upplevt taktil perception. Friktionskoefficienter beräknades och jämfördes mellan alla ytor. De stimuli som har studerats är tryckpapper och mjukpapper samt modellytor, gjorda för att systematiskt undersöka hur ytstruktur påverkar perceptionen. Tillverkningsmetoden för modellytorna valdes så att ytorna var tåliga och kunde tvättas och därmed återanvändas. Strukturen på ytorna bestod av ett vågformat mönster där våglängden varierade mellan 270 nm och 100 µm och amplituden mellan 7 nm och 6 µm. Enligt vår vetskap är det första gången som strukturer i de här skalorna har gjorts utan att samtidigt ändra andra material egenskaper. Friktionskoefficienten minskade med ökad kvot mellan amplituden och våglängden på modellytorna samt med ytråheten på tryckpappren. En analytisk modell tillämpades på kontakten mellan ett finger och ytorna som visade att friktionskoefficienten beror av den verkliga kontaktarean. För de mycket grövre mjukpappren uppmättes inga stora skillnader i friktion förmodligen för att kontakarean mellan de olika mjukpapprena var lika. Den faktiska kontakarean visade sig också vara viktig för perceptionen av lenhet, strävhet, torrhet och svalhet. Det visade sig vara en stor perceptuell skillnad mellan olika typer av tryckpapper och mjukpapper utifrån hur stimuli placerade sig på en taktil karta. För de tre materialen användes enbart två alternativt tre egenskaper hos materialet för att särskilja mellan alla olika par. För tryckpapper verkade en viktig dimension kunna beskrivas av alla de perceptuella och fysikaliska egenskaper som har med kontaktarean att göra, d.v.s. lenhet, svalhet, torrhet, ytråhet, värmekonduktivitet samt friktion. För att taktilt särskilja mellan olika ytor där bara strukturen är varierade, kunde friktion och våglängden relateras till spridningen i kartan. Båda studierna stödjer duplex theory of texture perception, där ett spatialt sinne används för att särskilja en av de grövre ytorna från en slät, och ett vibrationssinne för att särskilja mellan olika släta strukturer. Friktionen visade sig alltså vara en viktig fysikalisk egenskap för strukturer under åtminstone 10 µm i ytråhet. Från fingerfriktions mätningar kunde även följande slutsatser dras: (i) Stora skillnader i friktionskoefficient mellan olika personer uppmättes, men trenderna mellan olika individer var samma, vilket gör att relativa skillnader i friktion från en individ är representativa. (ii) Lipider (fingerfett) som överförs från fingret till ytan vid kontakt sänker friktionen. (iii) Frekvensinnehållet i friktionskraften varierar mellan olika ytor och den frekvenstopp som ses vid 30 Hz kan möjligtvis bero på fingrets struktur eller resonansfrekvensen på huden. (iv) Den pålagda kraften under en friktionsmätning visar sig omedvetet regleras av den friktionskraft som fingret möter under rörelse.  Hur små strukturer som kan diskrimineras har indirekt undersökts genom likhetsförsöket på modellytorna där försökspersoner skulle bedöma hur lika alla par av ytor kändes. Resultaten visade att ytorna med våglängder på 760 nm och 870 nm upplevdes olika jämfört med referens ytor utan något systematiskt mönster, medan ytan med 270 nm i våglängd inte kunde särskiljas. Amplituden på ytan som kunde diskrimineras var endast ca 10 nm, vilket indikerar att nanoteknologi mycket väl kan bidra inom haptiken och för att i framtiden kontrollera den taktila perceptionen. / <p>QC 20121026</p>