Thesis (Ph. D.)--Florida State University, 2004. / Advisor: Dr. Stefan C. Norrbin, Florida State University, College of Social Sciences, Department of Economics. Title and description from dissertation home page (viewed June 16, 2004). Includes bibliographical references.

2007 infördes regler om dokumentationsskyldighet i Sverige. Reglerna baserades på OECDs riktlinjer för internprissättningsdokumentationskrav. I slutet av september 2014 publicerade OECD BEPS-rapporten ”Guidance on Transfer Pricing Documentation and Country-by-Country Reporting” vilken innehåller omfattande förslag på hur OECDs nuvarande internprissättningsdokumentationsregler bör revideras. Frågan blir därmed om, och i så fall hur, kommande svenska internprissättningsdokumentationsregler bör utformas? Det finns idag betydande skillnader mellan nuvarande svenska bestämmelser och OECDs kommande ändringar. Avvikande svenska dokumentationsregler leder till ökad börda för de multinationella företagen då de tvingas följa flera olika mer eller mindre komplicerade regelverk. Något som riskerar att leda till att företag inte väljer att etablera sin verksamhet i Sverige. OECDs tredelade dokumentation bidrar till ett ökat informationsutbyte mellan respektive lands skattemyndigheter samt ökad förståelse bland bolagen om vad som utgör ett armlängdsmässigt pris. Nuvarande svenska internprissättningsdokumentationsregler bör därför revideras så att de harmoniserar med OECDs kommande riktlinjer. BEPS-rapporten bidrar till tydligare och mer funktionella regler. Dock finns det möjlighet för stater att själva utforma regler inomvissa områden. I kombination med OECD medlemsstaters olika tolkningssätt öppnar det upp för en regeldiskrepans mellan berörda länder. I syfte att skapa harmoniserade och funktionella regler krävs att samtliga OECD-länder implementerar riktlinjerna på likartat vis. Det är således av vikt att lagstiftaren i Sverige implementerar OECDs riktlinjer strikt och i de fall det finns möjlighet till tolkningsutrymme, ser till syftet bakom OECDs riktlinjer samt till hur andra jurisdiktioner valt att utforma sina internprissättningsdokumentationsregler. För att BEPS-rapportens syften ska uppnås krävs åtgärder på global basis, och Sverige behöver således revidera nuvarande svenska regler så att de uppfyller BEPS-rapportens intentioner.

This master thesis examines the issues surrounding the pricing of intra-group loans. The main focus of the thesis is the process of establishing an interest rate and the assessment of the credit risk in an intra-group context.  In order to expose the common problems associated with the pricing of intra-group loans the thesis has examined case law from two different jurisdictions, Canada and Sweden, which have been put in relation to the OECD guidelines and Swedish national legislation. The purpose of the master thesis has been to determine whether the establishing of an interest rate and the assessment of the credit risk of an intra-group loan should be made taking into account the parent-subsidiary affiliation or relationship and whether or not this is a deviation of the arm’s length principle. A general assumption is that, if a transaction is carried out between related parties, the price could be different from a price deriving from negotiations between two unrelated parties on the open market, due to their commercial or financial relations. A common feature in case law, regarding the establishing of an appropriate interest rate on intra-group loan, has been whether or not the parent-subsidiary should be included in the assessment of the credit risk. Much of the support available to taxpayers in resolving transfer pricing issues are relating to goods and services and not financing transactions. The main reason is the unique economic profile of financial transactions. Financial transactions are affected by different factors why it is difficult to develop usable transfer pricing policies. Establishing economically justifiable transfer pricing policies while attempting to properly reflect taxable income and prevent penalties from international tax authorities, has resulted in transfer pricing challenges that are unique to intra-group financing. According to Swedish law, interest is regarded as a deductable cost within corporate tax. However, in recent cases, the Swedish tax authorities have been questioning, the deduction right as well as the level of interest on intra-group loans. As of today, there are few national and international guidelines on this area thus it is of interest to examine and address the issues surrounding intra –group loans.

By September 2010, in its ongoing effort to clarify the subject of taxing a permanent establishment, the OECD launched a new article 7 in its model tax convention together with a revised version of the report on the attribution of profits to permanent establishments. The article and the report contain a new order of taxation, where a permanent establishment should, in almost all aspects, be treated as a separate entity. The question is if the new approaches, methods and solutions provided by the article and the report will prove effective against double taxation. The thesis has studied this by analysing and then comparing the OECD’s authorised approach with the relevant literature and the current practical situation. The result of the thesis presents that there are problems with the approaches and methods, which in some situations will cause double taxation, not the least regarding allocation of Free Capital. The thesis also concludes that the way in which article 7 of the model tax convention tries to solve double taxation without unnecessary use of the mutual agreement procedure is flawed in relation to differences in national legislation.

The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the notion of risk as set out in Issues Notes 1, in the document “Transfer Pricing Aspects of Business Restructurings: Discussion Draft for Public Comment”. Furthermore, the approach of this draft is compared with the authorized OECD approach, established in the 2010 Report on the Attribution of Profits to Permanent Establishments. German law on transfer pricing provisions will also be examined to see whether domestic provisions could make a good example in allocating risks, as a supplement to the guidance from the OECD. Issues Notes 1 has been subject for a debate as to how it should be interpreted and whether the provisions laid down in the document provide the tax authorities of contracting states too much room for subjectivity in determining whether risk allocation scenarios as set up by associated enterprises have economic substance. It has also been argued that Issues Notes 1 is an attempt by the OECD to align risk allocation under Article 9 of the OECD Model Convention with the authorized OECD approach, applicable to permanent establishments, because risk allocation under Article 7 is conducted by applying the Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations by analogy. There are however crucial differences between associated enterprises and permanent establishments which makes this impossible. The guidance under Issues Notes 1 is insufficient, why the OECD should seek to further clarify the concepts regarding business restructurings. The German way of implementing domestic provisions is incompatible with the provisions of the OECD and Article 9 and therefore violates most of its tax treaties.

There is an overlap between the transfer pricing concepts that apply under tax and under customs regimes. This thesis aims to demonstrate (i) that customs and tax laws often share common principles in respect of related-party transactions; (ii) that transfer pricing as agreed to under one discipline should be recognized under the other; (iii) that the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines constitute a body of rules that is appropriate to supplement the related party provisions of the GATT/WTO Valuation Code ("GVC"); and (iv) that such guidelines are generally in accordance with the provisions of the GVC and its general principles and objectives. This thesis also analyzes the tax and customs value of imported goods, and identifies which additions to or deductions from customs value might have to be taken into account in comparing tax and customs results. The thesis concludes with an analysis of the circumstances and conditions under which the introduction of transfer pricing compensatory adjustments to transaction value would be consistent with Article 1 of the GVC.

Med hjälp av internpriser kan den offentliga organisationen spåra vart kostnader uppstår och vart resurserna hamnar. När en offentlig verksamhet går mot att styras mer som den privata sektorn uppstår vissa problem. Den offentliga verksamheten som har en stor bredd i sina verksamheter för att tillhandahålla service till medborgarna behöver det att de också hushålla med sina resurser, då dessa finansieras av bland annat skatteintäkter. Det kan uppstå vissa styreffekter till följd till användningen av internpriser, som kan vara av såväl positiv som negativ karaktär. Genom att en offentlig organisation använder sig av internpriser för att styra i organisationen uppstår ytterligare effekter såsom förändringar i resursanvändandet. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka hur offentlig verksamhet använder sig utav internpriser för att styra i organisationen. Med att använda internpriser syftas det på vilken metod som används och hur styreffekterna hanteras i organisationen. Den teoretiska delen av uppsatsen behandlar i först hur styrning i en offentlig organisation kan se ut genom att redogöra för New Public Management. I den andra delen av teorin behandlas internpriser, dess syfte, användbara metoder samt vilka effekter som kan uppstå när en organisation använder internpriser. Teorin avslutas med att redogöra för en prismodell som kan vara användbar vid arbetet kring att etablera internpriser. För att undersöka hur internpriser används till att styra i praktiken har en fallstudie med semistrukturerade, kvalitativa intervjuer genomförts. Intervjuer har genomförts med personer som arbetar med styrningen och internpriser i offentlig verksamhet. Dessa intervjuer har sedan kompletterats med dokumentanalyser, av material som tillhandahållits av respondenterna. Det empiriska materialet har tillsammans med den teoretiska referensramen bidragit till att vi kunnat genomföra en analys av en offentlig organisations användning av internpriser Genom att använda internpriser i offentlig organisation kan vissa förväntade effekter uppstå. Exempel på sådana effekter är bland annat ökad kostnadsmedvetenhet hos medarbetarna, vilket leder till ett minskat slöseri med resurser. Men det kan även uppstå effekter som tenderar till att vara negativa, genom att internpriser kan bidra till att det administrativa arbetet kan upplevas som krävande och tungt. Genom att analysera de problem och svårigheter som finns med internpriser i offentliga organisationer har vi kommit fram till att problemet inte återfinns i prisnivån. Istället går det att härleda svårigheterna med internpriser, till vad som inkluderas i erbjudandena samt hur dessa sedan kommuniceras ut i organisationen. Dock är offentliga organisationer komplexa med stor bredd i sin verksamhet, vilket kan leda till att fler än en prismodell kan behöva användas. Det finns lite teoretisk fakta kring internprissättning överlag, men framförallt kring internprissättning i offentliga organisationer. Att offentliga organisationer arbetar utan vinstsyfte och strävar efter ett noll resultat, kan vara en anledning till att de kostnadsbaserade internpriser att föredra i de fall där den offentliga sektorns tjänster inte kommer i kontakt med marknaden. / This thesis will explore the subject of the difficulties of applying transfer pricing within public organizations, and the effect this practice has on such organizations. There are limited theories that address the issue of transfer pricing in public as well as in private organizations. The lack of theories only makes this problem more pressing and this thesis questioned the recurring use of such a practice in light of this. This thesis sets out to analyze an approach to establish a functional transfer pricing strategy in a specific organization. Data was gathered on the organization’s use of transfer pricing as a means to guide the organization towards tax saving, reduce the waste of recourses and establish awareness of cost effectiveness within the organization. The analysis showed that the problem for this specific organization was not the price level itself but instead what the offer actually included and how well the seller communicated the content of the offer to the other unit of the organization.

The transfer pricing, literature indicates that an investigation of some aspects of this subject could usefully be undertaken in order to contribute to the understanding of transfer pricing in both domestic and international markets. This study aims at exploring the current state of transfer pricing practice and establishing the importance attached to the ranking of transfer pricing determinants (i. e. objectives and environmental variables) and the extent to which the ranking varies across markets, industry, and according to the transfer pricing method used. It also seeks to discover interrelationship among the transfer pricing determinants in order to produce a reduced set of basic factors. Lastly, it aims at evaluating the relationship between transfer pricing determinants and transfer pricing methods and at discovering a means of predicting the latter from the company's perception of the relative importance of these determinants. To achieve the above objectives, an empirical study covering both domestic and international markets was undertaken in UK companies. The conclusions are concerned with transfer pricing policy, methods currently used, and problems apparent in practice. The overall ranking-by survey respondents of the transfer pricing determinants is given as well as the results of tests of certain hypotheses which relate to this ranking. The transfer pricing determinants used in the survey for domestic and international. markets (twelve and twenty respectively) have been reduced by Factor Analysis to four and six factors. The study made use of the results to obtain measures of the ranking of discovered factors. Finally, the relationship between the transfer pricing determinants and transfer pricing methods was quantitatively evaluated in the form of a set of classification functions by using Multi-Discriminant Analysis. The classification functions are able to predict the transfer pricing method actually used in companies with an acceptable degree of success. The study's results have been reviewed with a small number of senior managers who are involved in establishing transfer pricing policy within their companies.

目前，許多跨國企業為了避免被課予重稅，紛紛於免稅天堂設立紙上公司，以使利潤留在較低稅率之國家，以節省稅賦。各國稅務機關對於此一問題，紛紛規定移轉訂價準則，以規範該稅收管轄權區域內之企業，以避免企業從事不合常規交易，影響稅收。 我國於93年12月28日發布營利事業所得稅不合常規移轉訂價查核準則，在在都顯示我國對於此一移轉訂價問題之重視，又金融控股公司制度已施行有三年之久，本研究擬針對金融控股公司內部，及金融控股公司與外部關係企業之移轉訂價政策進行研究。 研究結果發現國泰金控公司與外部關係企業、外部關係人之交易，分為有形資產移轉及使用、無形資產移轉及使用、資金使用，均採市價計算。合於OECD規定之可比較非受控制價格法 (CUP)及我國營利事業所得稅不合常規移轉訂價查核準則第五條規定之可比較未受控價格法。 另外，國泰金控母公司與金控子公司間之垂直交易，與金控子公司間之交易亦是採市價作計算。有關國泰金控內部跨售之行為，則是採取給付佣金之方式。然而，此一跨售之行為，應由銀行計算出投入各項銷售之成本，再將各銷售成本納入該當之子公司損益表項下，以充份反映銷壽產險之總成本，以檢視其金控集團是否有達其成本節省之綜效。若未來國內金控集團勢布局亞太地區或是全球，則金控公司不能忽視此一移轉訂價問題，必須準備移轉訂價報告，或是與各國之稅務機關簽訂預先訂價協議，避免重覆課稅。 / Nowadays, many multinational enterprises set up paper companies in the tax heaven, then they can increase income of the paper company. Because tax heaven impose lower tax rate or nil tax rate, they can reduce tax expenses. Many countries had set up transfer pricing regulation to avoid the companies have non-arm’s length transaction. We had issued transfer pricing regulation in Dec. 28, 2004 in Taiwan, and the financial holding company law had come into force for 3 years. The research make a study of transfer pricing policy of the intra-holding company and transfer pricing policy between holding company and related parties. The results of the research are that transaction prices between Cathay Holding Company and the related parties are according with the market prices, and this fit in with the comparable uncontrolled price method. In addition, transaction prices within the intra-holding company are according with the market prices, too. The cross selling between bank and insurance company, the insurance company will give bank appropriate commission fees. But bank should calculate the cost to sell the insurance, then the insurance company can summarize the total cost of selling insurance, to see that if they had achieve the goal of synergetic benefits. If the financial holding companies had become a world-wide companies, they should pay much attention to transfer pricing issue to avoid double taxation.

Using a game theoretical setting, this paper studies how a multinational company's (MNC) choice of using one set (OSB) or two sets of books (TSB) is affected by a strategically acting tax auditor (TA). First, a divisionalized MNC with a producing division in a low tax country and a selling division in a high tax country chooses either OSB or TSB. With OSB, the unique transfer price coordinates the quantity decision and determines the tax payments. With TSB, two transfer prices are used for both tasks. Second, a TA may audit the MNC's transfer prices. It turns out that the TA's bargaining power and his personal audit costs critically influence the MNC's transfer pricing decision. For a low bargaining power and low audit costs, the MNC keeps OSB with positive probability. When the TA's bargaining power is high, the negotiation benefits from using a single transfer price are outweighed by the costs of a reduced flexibility. Then, the MNC keeps TSB with either tax aggressive or compliant reported transfer prices. In addition, a raise in the tax difference induces less tax aggressive behavior. Intuitively, tax aggressiveness should be even more attractive in this case. This intuition is not true in our setting since the TA's audit probability increases and, thus, makes profit shifting less attractive. / Series: WU International Taxation Research Paper Series