An analysis of transfer pricing theory reveals that there are three main objectives of a transfer pricing system: the attainment of goal congruence, the facilitation of fair divisional performance evaluation and the promotion of divisional autonomy. A critical evaluation of suggested theoretically correct transfer pricing methods suggests that the simultaneous attainment of all three objectives is a difficult goal to be realised by a single transfer pricing method. The most appropriate method to suit a particular set of circumstances is contingent upon those circumstances. The transfer pricing objective considered most important in practice by large listed South African industrial companies is the facilitation of fair divisional performance evaluation. Objectives relating to simplicity and ease of application are also rated more highly than goal congruence. Both these findings are somewhat surprising based on the review of current literature. The domestic transfer pricing methods used by large listed South African industrial companies are fairly evenly split between cost and non-cost-oriented methods. The most frequently used primary transfer pricing method is market price. The use of mathematical programming and economic marginal cost prices is practically non-existent. These findings are consistent with the findings of some recent overseas studies. Policies relating to the selection of the transfer pricing method, the purchase of intermediate goods and services and the settlement of transfer pricing disputes reflects some head office management involvement in the transfer price decision process in most cases. Three organisational variables appear to have a significant association with a firm's choice of transfer pricing method. Firstly, companies with a low level of interdivisional trading use non-cost oriented transfer pricing methods whereas companies with a high level of interdivisional trading use cost-oriented methods. Secondly, transfer pricing methods selected as a result of some head office management involvement tend to be cost-oriented whereas methods selected by the divisions themselves tend to be non-cost-oriented. Thirdly, cost-oriented methods tend to be used in companies in which transfer pricing disputes are normally settled by some form of head office intervention and non-cost oriented methods are used in those companies in which disputes are normally settled by the divisions themselves. / Thesis (M.Acc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Syracuse University, 2008. / "Publication number: AAT 3323061."

Master-Arbeit Univ. St. Gallen, 2008.

Problemformulering: År 2002 genomfördes en kvantitativ studie om hur svenska börsnoterade bolag arbetar med internprissättning. Studien visade att det finns skillnader i hur tillverkande företag och tjänsteföretag arbetar med internprissättning. Resultatet av undersökningen belyste att det finns ett behov av mer djupgående kunskap gällande internprissättning i tjänsteföretag och dess följder. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att analysera vilka faktorer som beaktas vid utformningen av ett internprissättningssystem i tjänsteföretag samt vilka följder tillämpningen av ett internprissättningssystem medför i tjänsteföretag. Forskningsfrågor: Vilka faktorer ligger bakom val av internprissättningssystem i tjänsteföretag? Vilka är följderna av valt internprissättningssystem i tjänsteföretag? Forskningsbidrag: Tidigare studier har ej kunnat förklara tjänsteföretags val av internprissättningssystem eller vad tillämpningen av ett internprissättningssystem medför i ett tjänsteföretag. Syftet med denna studie är att fylla denna kunskapslucka, inom ramen för ekonomistyrning. Slutsats: Resultatet av denna studie visar att ett flertal faktorer beaktas vid utformning av internprissättningssystem i tjänsteföretag. Vilken organisationsstruktur ett tjänsteföretag har ligger till grund för huruvida det finns ett behov av att styra den interna handeln genom internprissättning. Hur frekvent den interna handeln sker bör vidare beaktas vid val av internprissättningssystem då det påverkar vilken prismodell som är mest lämplig. Då tjänster har en låg standardiseringsgrad måste det valda internprissättningssystemet även ta hänsyn till att tjänster är svåra att värdera. Den kompetens som finns inom en organisation gällande utformningen av interna system är ytterligare en faktor som bör beaktas vid val av internprissättningssystem. Resultatet av denna studie påvisar att tillämpningen av internprissättning och de valda prismodellerna medför ett flertal positiva och negativa följder i ett tjänsteföretag. / Problem definition: A quantitative study in 2002 indicated that there are differences in how manufacturing companies and service companies design their transfer pricing systems. According to the study there is a need for more profound knowledge about transfer pricing systems in service companies as well as the impact of the systems. Purpose: The aim of this study is to analyse which factors service companies take into account when designing a transfer pricing system and to analyse what impact a transfer pricing system has in a service company. Research questions: What are the underlying factors behind the choice of transfer pricing system in service companies? What is the impact of the chosen transfer pricing system in service companies? Research contribution: Previous research cannot explain the choice of transfer pricing systems in service companies or the consecutions of the systems. The aim of this study is to respond to these unanswered questions, within the field of management controlling. Conclusion: The result of this study indicates that service companies take several factors into account when designing a transfer pricing system. Whether or not there is a need for a transfer pricing system in a service company is decided by the organisational structure. The frequency of transactions within the organisation is another factor that must be considered when designing the system, since it affects which model that should be used for transfer pricing. The low degree of standardisation of services should also be taken into account when it comes to transfer pricing. Moreover, this study finds that the capacity within the organisation for designing internal systems also should affect the choice of transfer pricing system. Finally, the result of this study shows that the appliance of a transfer pricing system as well as the chosen model induce several positive and negative consecutions in a service company.

This study analyzes the impact of transfer pricing on multinational enterprises' R&D investment decisions. Specifically, I examine the effects of two commonly used contract designs to exchange and develop intangible assets across group affiliates: licensing and cost sharing agreements. Whilst serving as a tool to allocate taxable income between group affiliates, the economic implications of licensing and cost sharing agreements differ. Whereas licensing agreements provide for a sharing rule on the intangible's profits, cost sharing agreements on the other hand provide a sharing rule on R&D development costs. This difference matters when firms simultaneously use internal transfer prices to allocate taxable income and provide local management with sufficient investment incentives. Using a multiple-agent, moral hazard investment framework I model a multinational firm with comparable group affiliates in two countries that delegates the R&D investment decision to a local risk and effort averse affiliate manager. The results suggest that the optimal contract not only depends on available tax benefits, but also on R&D investment and manager specific characteristics. A licensing agreement provides management with larger incentives to invest in R&D mitigating agency concerns associated with R&D. On the other hand, using a cost sharing agreement the firm can cater different risk preferences among managers potentially increasing investment. The arm's length principle however may distort an efficient allocation of R&D costs when using a cost sharing agreement. / Series: WU International Taxation Research Paper Series

This treatise analyses the suitability of the Advance Pricing Agreements (APA) for the South African Transfer Pricing legislation. The transfer pricing legislation places emphasis on the arm's length principle. Determining an arm's length price is problematic and as a result some countries have resorted to APA's to establish an arm's length price up-front, and thus avoid reviews and subsequent audits. The treatise first focuses on the transfer pricing provisions and other relevant applicable sections of the Act from the South African point of view, and it then examines the current status quo, i.e. the review processes used by the South African Revenue Services (SARS) as detailed in the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Developments (OECD) Guidelines and the SARS Practice Note. Since negotiated tax treaties form part of the South Africa law, the impact of these treaties are discussed in Chapter 4. The treatise discusses in detail an APA from the OECD's point of view. It examines the objectives of an APA; the benefit and the shortcomings of using an APA. It then examines the APA request processes from a Canadian perspective and the administration of the APA from an USA perspective. The treatise examines South African trading partners using APA in transfer pricing matters, with reference to the effects and the challenges such countries face. The treatise concludes by looking at the benefits provided by use of an APA by South African major trading partners. The effect and the use of such APA will have in South Africa is also discussed and how it should be modelled; the present status quo with regard to personnel at SARS; and the possible impact the introduction and implementation will have in South Africa.

Regleringen bakom prissättningen av interna transaktioner mellan multinationella bolag beror på att staterna vill minska risken för att den nationella skattebasen urholkas och att vinster förflyttas. För att komma åt denna problematik har Sverige infört den s.k. korrigeringsregeln i 14 kap. 19 § IL. Bestämmelsen brukar benämnas som korrigeringsregeln i och med att tillämpning av den medför en korrigering av bolagets resultat. Om ett bolags resultat, på grund av intressegemenskapen, blir lägre till följd av att bolagen avtalar om villkor och priser som avviker från vad oberoende bolag skulle avtalat om, kan det innebära att resultatet justeras. Med justering innebär att felprissättningen ”rättas” och resultatet korrigeras till vad det hade uppgått till om felprissättning inte hade skett. En intern transaktion ska följaktligen prissättas på samma sätt som oberoende parter hade gjort i en liknande transaktion och under jämförbara omständigheter. Korrigeringsregeln tillämpas vid internprissättningssituationer, vilket innebär att den endast träffar gränsöverskridande transaktioner mellan bolag i intressegemenskap. I min uppsats har jag valt att fokusera på internprissättning av lån mellan moderbolag och dotterbolag inom samma intressegemenskap. Att prissätta ett koncerninternt lån innebär att bolagen i många fall måste genomföra ingående analyser för att nå en armlängdsmässig prissättning. Vad en armlängdsmässig prissättning är i det enskilda fallet går inte att säga på förhand, utan kräver en helhetsbedömning utifrån de rådande omständigheterna. I mitt arbete har jag presenterat olika faktorer som påverkar prissättningen av ett gränsöverskridande koncerninternt lån, där vissa kan ha mer påverkan än andra i den enskilda transaktionen. Det material jag använt mig av har jag sedan jämfört med korrigeringsregeln för att se om dessa är förenliga med lagtexten. Det som framställningen även har visat på är att det råder ett starkt samband mellan många av faktorerna, vilket har gett upphov till att en helhetsbedömning krävs. De källor och aktörer jag granskat i min framställning är praxis, OECD:s riktlinjer från 2017, OECD:s riktlinjer för finansiella transaktioner från 2020, Skatteverkets rättsliga vägledning samt doktrin. Min framställning bygger på den internationellt vedertagna armlängdsprincipen som återfinns i 14 kap. 19 § IL och artikel 9.1 i OECD:s modellavtal. En stor del av mitt material härrör från OECD:s transfer pricing guidelines, även kallat riktlinjerna. Dessa riktlinjer är vägledande i bedömningen av vad som är armlängdsmässigt och tillämpas av både domstolar, Skatteverket och av skattskyldiga. En av anledningarna till att ett sådant material används för att tolka korrigeringsregeln är för att den svenska bestämmelsen är vag i sin utformning. En annan anledning är för att staterna genom ekonomiska samarbeten vill uppnå enhetliga bedömningar och minska risken för dubbelbeskattning. På grund av mitt metodval samt legalitetsprincipen har uppsatsen starkt präglats av den rättskällehierarki vi har inom svensk rätt. Detta påverkar således mitt material genom att vissa källor, såsom OECD:s riktlinjer, inte har företräde i tolkningen av 14 kap. 19 § IL.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Commerce (specialising in Taxation) / Base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) has become an increasingly important matter for both multinational enterprises (MNEs) and the countries in which they operate. The tax avoidance strategies used to exploit gaps and mismatches in tax rules have become progressively complex and advanced over the past decade. The aim of this research report is to determine the importance and relevance of addressing BEPS via branch mismatch arrangements, as proposed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), to an emerging economy such as South Africa. The report discusses and analyses the concept of branch mismatch arrangements, the concerns and challenges arising from the use of these arrangements, the recommendations from the OECD in addressing these mismatches and the approaches taken by selected countries. Current domestic legislation is contrasted with international approaches and the recommendations by the OECD. The outcome of adoption or non-adoption of the recommendations will be investigated. / NG (2020)

Thesis (M.M. (Finance & Investment))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, Graduate School of Business Administration, 2013. / The recent market turmoil caused by the subprime crisis highlighted the fact that an inappropriate liquidity risk management process may strongly affect the capacity of banks to maintain their financial equilibrium and economic performance under stress conditions. In addition, it has been observed that the most significant challenge facing banks when they are adopting new regulations such as Basel I, Basel II and now Basel III is the imminent threat of imbalances between the interests of the shareholders and those of the regulator (Chabanel, 2011). This thesis proposes a framework on liquidity risk management in the banking book that a bank may adopt so as to improve the way in it could manage the anticipated changes within tits regulatory environment.

The transfer pricing, literature indicates that an investigation of some aspects of this subject could usefully be undertaken in order to contribute to the understanding of transfer pricing in both domestic and international markets. This study aims at exploring the current state of transfer pricing practice and establishing the importance attached to the ranking of transfer pricing determinants (i. e. objectives and environmental variables) and the extent to which the ranking varies across markets, industry, and according to the transfer pricing method used. It also seeks to discover interrelationship among the transfer pricing determinants in order to produce a reduced set of basic factors. Lastly, it aims at evaluating the relationship between transfer pricing determinants and transfer pricing methods and at discovering a means of predicting the latter from the company's perception of the relative importance of these determinants. To achieve the above objectives, an empirical study covering both domestic and international markets was undertaken in UK companies. The conclusions are concerned with transfer pricing policy, methods currently used, and problems apparent in practice. The overall ranking-by survey respondents of the transfer pricing determinants is given as well as the results of tests of certain hypotheses which relate to this ranking. The transfer pricing determinants used in the survey for domestic and international. markets (twelve and twenty respectively) have been reduced by Factor Analysis to four and six factors. The study made use of the results to obtain measures of the ranking of discovered factors. Finally, the relationship between the transfer pricing determinants and transfer pricing methods was quantitatively evaluated in the form of a set of classification functions by using Multi-Discriminant Analysis. The classification functions are able to predict the transfer pricing method actually used in companies with an acceptable degree of success. The study's results have been reviewed with a small number of senior managers who are involved in establishing transfer pricing policy within their companies. / Egyptian Government and Al-Azher University