Rare lipoprotein A (RlpA) has been studied previously only in Escherichia coli, where it localizes to the septal ring and scattered foci along the lateral wall, but mutants have no phenotypic change. In this thesis, we show rlpA mutants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa form chains of short, fat cells when grown in media of low osmotic strength. These morphological defects indicate RlpA is needed for efficient separation of daughter cells and maintenance of rod shape. Analysis of peptidoglycan sacculi from a ΔrlpA mutant revealed increased tetra and hexasaccharides that lack stem peptides (hereafter called "naked glycans"). Incubation of these sacculi with purified RlpA resulted in release of naked glycans containing 1,6-anhydro N-acetylmuramic acid ends. RlpA did not degrade sacculi from wild-type cells unless the sacculi were subjected to a limited digestion with an amidase to remove some of the stem peptides. Collectively, these findings indicate RlpA is a lytic transglycosylase with a strong preference for naked glycan strands. We propose that RlpA activity is regulated in vivo by substrate availability, and that amidases and RlpA work in tandem to degrade peptidoglycan in the division septum and lateral wall. Our discovery that RlpA from P. aeruginosa is a lytic transglycosylase motivated us to reinvestigate RlpA from E. coli. We confirmed predictions that RlpA of E. coli is an outer membrane protein and determined its abundance to be about 600 molecules per cell. However, multiple efforts to demonstrate that E. coli RlpA is a lytic transglycosylase were unsuccessful and the function of this protein in E. coli remains obscure.

Peptidoglycan, the major component of the bacterial cell wall, is essential for cell viability. Several important antibiotics disrupt peptidoglycan metabolism, including the β-lactams and vancomycin. There are several bacterial enzymes involved in peptidoglycan metabolism that are not yet the target of antibiotics, such as the lytic transglycosylases (LTs). Relatively little experimental characterization has been done on LTs, due largely to the difficulties of working with insoluble, heterogeneous, and highly variable peptidoglycan. This research develops a method for the generation of a soluble, homogeneous oligosaccharide substrate that can be used to study LTs. The approach taken was based on the enzymatic degradation of peptidoglycan into fragments of a specific nature, and their separation by HPLC. This work identifies the challenges associated with this approach, and discusses the potential flaws in the 'top-down' generation of a soluble substrate. / This thesis was typeset with LaTeX using Minion Pro and Myriad Pro typefaces.

No description available.

Cellulosabaserade material är världens rikligast förekommande förnyelsebara råvara. Växters cellväggar är naturliga kompositmaterial där den kristallina cellulosan är inbäddad i en väv av hemicellulosa, strukturproteiner och lignin. Xyloglukaner är en viktig hemicellulosagrupp som omger och korslänkar den kristallina cellulosan i cellväggarna. I denna avhandling undersöks undersöks sambanden mellan struktur och funktion hos olika xyloglukan-aktiva enzymer. En modell för effektiv enzymatisk omvandling av biomassa ges av cellulosomen hos den anaeroba prokaryota organismen Clostridium thermocellum. Cellulosomen är ett proteinkomplex med hög molmassa och flera olika enzymaktiviteter, bl.a. det inverterande xyloglukan-endohydrolaset CtXGH74A. Proteinstrukturen för CtXGH74A har lösts i komplex med xyloglukanoligosackarider, som stabliliserar vissa loopar/slingor som är oordnade i apostrukturen. Ytterligare detaljerade kinetiska och produktananalyser har genomförts för att entydigt visa att CtXGH74A är ett endoxyloglukanas vars slutliga nedbrytningsprodukt är Glc4-baserade xyloglukanoligosackarider. Som jämförelse innehåller glykosidhydrolasfamilj 16 (GH16) såväl hydrolytiska endoxyloglukanaser som xyloglukantransglykosylaser (XETs) från växter. För att utreda vad som bestämmer förhållandet mellan transglykosylering och hydrolys i xyloglukanaktiva enzymer från familj GH 16 jämfördes struktur och kinetik hos ett strikt transglykosylas, PttXET16-34 från hybridasp, med ett nära besläktat hydrolytiskt enzym, NXG1 från krasse. I NXG1 identifierades en viktig förlängningsloop, som vid trunkering gav ett muterat enzym med högre transglykosyleringshastighet och minskad hydrolytisk aktivitet. Kinetikstudierna genomfördes med hjälp av nyutvecklade känsliga provmetoder med väldefinerade XGO:er och ett antal kromogena XGO-arylglykosider. En detaljerad förståelse av enzymologin inom GH16 möjliggjorde utvecklingen av en ny kemoenzymatisk metod för biomimetisk fiberytmodifiering med hjälp av PttXET16-34s translgykosyleringsaktivitet. Aminoalditolderivat av xyloglukanoligosackarider användes som nyckelintermediärer för att introducera ny kemisk funktionalitet hos xyloglukan, såsom kromoforer, reaktiva grupper, proteinligander och initiatorer för polymeriseringsreaktioner. Tekniken innebär ett nytt och mångsidigt verktyg för fiberytmodifiering. / Zellulosehaltige Materialien sind die häufigsten erneuerbaren Rohmaterialien auf der Welt. Pflanzenzellwände sind natürliche Kompositmaterialien, sie enthalten kristalline Zellulose, die in einer Matrix aus Hemizellulosen, Proteinen und Lignin eingebettet sind. Xyloglukane sind eine wichtige Gruppe der Hemizellulosen, sie ummanteln und verbinden Zellulose in der pflanzlichen Zellwand. In dieser Abhandlung werden Strukturen von drei Xyloglukanaktiven Enzymen in Beziehung zu ihrer Funktion untersucht. Ein Paradigma für effizienter Nutzung von Biomasse ist das Cellulosom des anaerob lebenden Bakteriums Clostridium thermocellum. Das Cellulosom ist ein hochmolekularer Komplex von Proteinen mit vielen verschiedenen Aktivitäten, darunter ist auch die invertierende Xyloglukan Endohydrolase CtXGH74A. Die Proteinstruktur von CtXGH74A wurde im Komplex mit Xyloglukanoligosacchariden (XGO) gelöst, welche ungeordnete Loops der apo-Struktur stabilisierten. Durch weitere detaillierte Analyse der Kinetik und Reaktionsprodukte konnte schlüssig gezeigt werden, daß CtXGH74A eine Endoglukanase ist, die Glc4-basierte XGO produziert. Im Vergleich dazu enthält die retentierende Glykosidhydrolasefamilie 16 (GH16) sowohl hydrolytische Endoxyloglukanasen als auch Transglykosidasen von Pflanzen. Um zu erklären welche Faktoren das Verhältnis zwischen Transglykosidase und Hydrolase Aktivität bei GH16 Xyloglukanaktiven Enzymen bestimmen wurde eine reine Transglykosidase PttXET16-34 von Hybridaspen mit einem nah verwandten hydrolytischen Enzym NXG1 von Kapuzinerkresse strukturell und kinetisch verglichen. Als Schlüsselstelle wurde eine Verlängerung eines Loops in NXG1 identifiziert, Verkürzung des Loops führte zu einer Mutante mit erhöhter Transglykosylierungsrate bei verminderter hydrolytischer Aktivität. Kinetische Studien wurden erleichtert durch neu entwickelte hochempfindliche Methoden für Aktivitätsmessung, die auf XGO oder chromogene Aryl-XGO als definierte Substrate zurückgreifen. Detailliertes Verständnis von GH16 Enzymologie hat den Weg für die Entwicklung für eine neuartige Methode für biomimetische Oberflächenmodifikation von Zellulosefibern geebnet, dafür wurde die transglykosylierende Aktivität von PttXET16-34 angewendet. Aminoalditol-derivate von XGO wurden als wichtigste Zwischenprodukte angewendet, um neue chemische Funktionalitäten in Xyloglukan einzuführen, darunter waren Chromophore, reaktive Gruppen, Proteinliganden und Initiatoren für Polymerisationsreaktionen. Die modifizierten Xyloglukane wurden an eine Reihe von verschiedenen Zellulosematerialien gebunden und veränderten die Oberflächeneigenschaften dramatisch. Diese Methode ist ein neues wertvolles Werkzeug für Oberflächenmodifikation von Zellulosen. / Cellulosic materials are the most abundant renewable resource in the world; plant cell walls are natural composite materials containing crystalline cellulose embedded in a matrix of hemicelluloses, structural proteins, and lignin. Xyloglucans are an important group of hemicelluloses, which coat and cross-link crystalline cellulose in the plant cell wall. In this thesis, structure-function relationships of a range of xyloglucan-active enzymes were examined. A paradigm for efficient enzymatic biomass utilization is the cellulosome of the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium thermocellum. The cellulosome is a high molecular weight complex of proteins with diverse enzyme activities, including the inverting xyloglucan endo-hydrolase CtXGH74A. The protein structure of CtXGH74A was solved in complex with xyloglucan oligosaccharides (XGOs) which stabilized disordered loops of the apo-structure. Further detailed kinetic and product analyses were used to conclusively demonstrate that CtXGH74A is an endo-xyloglucase that produces Glc4-based XGOs as limit digestion products. In comparison, the retaining glycoside hydrolase family 16 (GH16) contains hydrolytic endo-xyloglucanases as well as xyloglucan transglycosylases (XETs) from plants. To elucidate the determinants of the transglycosylase/hydrolysis ratio in GH16 xyloglucan-active enzymes, a strict transglycosylase, PttXET16-34 from hybrid aspen, was compared structurally and kinetically with the closely related hydrolytic enzyme NXG1 from nasturtium. A key loop extension was identified in NXG1, truncation of which yielded a mutant enzyme that exhibited an increased transglycosylase rate and reduced hydrolytic activity. Kinetic studies were facilitated by the development of new, sensitive assays using well-defined XGOs and a series of chromogenic XGO aryl-glycosides. A detailed understanding of GH16 xyloglucan enzymology has paved the way for the development of a novel chemo-enzymatic approach for biomimetic fiber surface modification, in which the transglycosylating activity of PttXET16-34 was employed. Aminoalditol derivates of XGOs were used as key intermediates to incorporate novel chemical functionality into xyloglucan, including chromophores, reactive groups, protein ligands, and initiators for polymerization reactions. The resulting modified xyloglucans were subsequently bound to a range of cellulose materials to radically alter surface properties. As such, the technology provides a novel, versatile toolkit for fiber surface modification. / QC 20100624

La synthèse d’oligosides complexes reste difficilement réalisable par voie chimique. Le recours aux catalyseurs enzymatiques permettrait de pallier aux contraintes de la chimie mais les enzymes naturelles ne présentent pas toujours les propriétés adéquates et nécessitent d’être optimisées par ingénierie moléculaire. Le couplage de la chimie et de biocatalyseurs conçus « sur mesure », peut offrir une alternative prometteuse pour explorer de nouvelles voies de synthèse des sucres, notamment pour la mise au point de glycovaccins. L’objectif de cette thèse a ainsi visé à mettre en œuvre des stratégies d’ingénierie semi-rationnelles de l’amylosaccharase de Neisseria polysaccharea (ASNp), une α-transglucosylase utilisant le saccharose comme substrat, afin de concevoir de nouvelles spécificités de substrats et d’étendre le potentiel de cette enzyme à catalyser de nouvelles réactions, permettant ainsi d’aller bien au-delà de ce que la Nature peut offrir. Dans une première étude, une approche assistée par ordinateur a été suivie afin de remodeler le site actif de l’enzyme (sous-sites +1, +2 et +3) pour la reconnaissance et la glucosylation en α-1,4 d’un accepteur disaccharidique non-naturel (l’allyl 2-deoxy-2-N-trichloroacetyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranose). Le produit attendu, un trisaccharide, est un précurseur dans la synthèse chimio-enzymatique des oligosaccharides mimant les unités répétitives des lipopolysaccharides de Shigella flexneri, dont l’utilisation ultime est le développement de vaccins contre la Shigellose. Une approche computationnelle faisant appel à des outils dédiés au design automatisé de protéines et à une analyse des séquences a conduit au design d’une librairie d’environ 2.7x104 séquences, qui a ensuite été construite expérimentalement puis criblée. Au final, 55 variants actifs sur saccharose (le substrat donneur) ont été identifiés, et un mutant, appelé F3, a révélé sa capacité à glucosyler en α-1,4 le disaccharide cible. De manière étonnante, ce mutant possède 7 mutations au sein de son site actif, nécessaires au déploiement de sa nouvelle spécificité tout en maintenant son aptitude à utiliser le saccharose comme donneur d'unité glucosyle. Dans une deuxième étude, trois variants ont été identifiés lors du criblage de la librairie semi-rationnelle sur saccharose comme présentant de nouvelles spécificités de produits. Ces mutants ont été caractérisés plus en détails, ainsi que leurs produits, sur un plan biochimique et structural. Ces mutants, appelés 37G4, 39A8 et 47A10, contiennent entre 7 et 11 mutations dans leur site actif. Il a été montré qu’ils étaient capables de reconnaitre le saccharose et le maltose (un produit de la réaction avec le saccharose) comme donneur et accepteur pour synthétiser en quantités variables de l’erlose (α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-Fructose) et du panose (α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-D-glucose), des molécules non produites par l’enzyme sauvage. Des taux de production relativement élevés ont été obtenus pour ces molécules, dont les propriétés acariogènes et le pouvoir sucrant pourraient présenter un intérêt applicatif pour l’industrie alimentaire. Dans une dernière partie, un autre mutant, appelé 30H3, a été isolé lors du criblage primaire de la librairie de par son activité élevée sur saccharose (une amélioration d’un facteur 6.5 comparé à l’enzyme sauvage). Après caractérisation, le mutant s’est avéré synthétiser un profil unique de produits en comparaison de l’enzyme sauvage ASNp. Il s’est ainsi montré très efficace pour la synthèse de maltooligosaccharides solubles, de taille de chaînes contrôlée allant d’un DP 3 à 21, et de faible polydispersité. Aucun polymère insoluble n’a été identifié. La structure 3D du mutant résolue par cristallographie des rayons X a révélé un agrandissement de la poche catalytique en raison de la présence de 9 mutations introduites dans la première sphère.... / Chemical synthesis of complex oligosaccharides still remains critical. Enzymes have emerged as powerful tools to circumvent chemical boundaries of glycochemistry. However, natural enzymes do not necessarily display the required properties and need to be optimized by molecular engineering. Combined use of chemistry and tailored biocatalysts may thus be attractive for exploring novel synthetic routes, especially for glyco-based vaccines development. The objective of this thesis was thus to apply semi-rational engineering strategies to Neisseria polysaccharea amylosucrase (NpAS), a sucrose-utilizing α-transglucosylase, in order to conceive novel substrate specificities and extend the potential of this enzyme to catalyze novel reactions, going beyond what nature has to offer. In a first study, a computer aided-approach was followed to reshape the active site of the enzyme (subsites +1, +2 and +3) for the recognition and α-1,4 glucosylation of a non-natural disaccharide acceptor molecule (allyl 2-deoxy-2-N-trichloroacetyl-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-rhamnopyranose). The trisaccharide product is a building block for the chemo-enzymatic synthesis of oligosaccharides mimicking the repetitive units of the Shigella flexneri lipopolysaccharides, and ultimately, for the production of a vaccine against Shigellosis disease. Using computational tools dedicated to the automated protein design, combined with sequence analysis, a library of about 2.7x104 sequences was designed and experimentally constructed and screened. Altogether, 55 mutants were identified to be active on sucrose (the donor substrate), and one, called mutant F3, was subsequently found able to catalyze the α-1,4 glucosylation of the target disaccharide. Impressively, this mutant contained seven mutations in the first shell of the active site leading to a drastic reshaping of the catalytic pocket without significantly perturbing the original specificity for sucrose donor substrate. In a second study, three variants were identified from the screening of the semi-rational library on sole sucrose as displaying totally novel product specificities. They were further characterized, as well as their products, at both biochemical and structural level. These mutants, called 37G4, 39A8 and 47A10, contained between 7 and 11 mutations into their active site. They were found able to use sucrose and maltose (a reaction product from sucrose) as both donor and acceptor substrates to produce in varying amounts erlose (α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-Fructose) and panose (α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-α-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-D-glucose) trisaccharides, which are not produced at all by parental wild-type enzyme. Relatively high yields were obtained for the production of these molecules, which are known to have acariogenic and sweetening properties and could be of interest for food applications. In a last part, another mutant 30H3 was isolated due to its high activity on sucrose (6.5-fold improvement compared to wild-type activity) from primary screening of the library. When characterized, the mutant revealed a singular product profile compared to that of wild-type NpAS. It appeared highly efficient for the synthesis of soluble maltooligosaccharides of controlled size chains, from DP 3 to 21, and with a low polydispersity. No formation of insoluble polymer was found. The X-ray structure of the mutant was determined and revealed the opening of the catalytic pocket due to the presence of 9 mutations in the first sphere. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested a role of mutations onto flexibility of domain B’ that might interfere with oligosaccharide binding and explain product specificity of the mutant.

<p>The aim of this work was to develop a production process for the enzyme xyloglucan <i>endo</i>-transglycosylase from <i>Populus tremula x tremuloides</i> (<i>Ptt</i>XET16-34). The natural transglycosylating activity of this enzyme has previously been employed in a XET-Technology. This chemo enzymatic method is useful for biomimetic modification of cellulose surfaces and holds great potential for industrial applications. Thus, it requires that the XET-enzyme can be produced in larger scale.</p><p>This work also shows how the wildtype <i>Ptt</i>XET16-34 was modified into a glycosynthase. By mutation of the catalytic nucleophile into an alanine, glycine or serine residue, enzymes capable of synthesising defined xyloglucan fragments were obtained. These defined compounds are very valuable for further detailed studies of xyloglucan active-enzymes, but are also useful in molecular studies of the structurally important xyloglucan-cellulose interaction.</p><p>A heterologous production system for <i>Ptt</i>XET16-34 was previously developed in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. A methanol-limited fed-batch process was also previously established, but the yield of active XET was low due to proteolysis problems and low productivity. Therefore, two alternative fed-batch techniques were investigated for the production of <i>Ptt</i>XET16-34: a temperature-limited fed-batch (TLFB) and an oxygen-limited high-pressure fed-batch (OLHPFB).</p><p>For the initial recovery of XET after the fermentation process, two different downstream processes were investigated: expanded bed adsorption (EBA) and cross-flow filtration (CFF).</p>

The aim of this work was to develop a production process for the enzyme xyloglucan endo-transglycosylase from Populus tremula x tremuloides (PttXET16-34). The natural transglycosylating activity of this enzyme has previously been employed in a XET-Technology. This chemo enzymatic method is useful for biomimetic modification of cellulose surfaces and holds great potential for industrial applications. Thus, it requires that the XET-enzyme can be produced in larger scale. This work also shows how the wildtype PttXET16-34 was modified into a glycosynthase. By mutation of the catalytic nucleophile into an alanine, glycine or serine residue, enzymes capable of synthesising defined xyloglucan fragments were obtained. These defined compounds are very valuable for further detailed studies of xyloglucan active-enzymes, but are also useful in molecular studies of the structurally important xyloglucan-cellulose interaction. A heterologous production system for PttXET16-34 was previously developed in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. A methanol-limited fed-batch process was also previously established, but the yield of active XET was low due to proteolysis problems and low productivity. Therefore, two alternative fed-batch techniques were investigated for the production of PttXET16-34: a temperature-limited fed-batch (TLFB) and an oxygen-limited high-pressure fed-batch (OLHPFB). For the initial recovery of XET after the fermentation process, two different downstream processes were investigated: expanded bed adsorption (EBA) and cross-flow filtration (CFF). / <p>QC 20101108</p>

<p>Xyloglucans are polysaccharides found as storage polymers in seeds and tubers, and as cross-linking glycans in the cell wall of plants. Their structure is complex with intricate branching patterns, which contribute to the physical properties of the polysaccharide including its binding to and interaction with other glycans such as cellulose.</p><p>Xyloglucan is widely used in bulk quantities in the food, textile and paper making industries. With an increasing interest in technically more advanced applications of xyloglucan, such as novel biocomposites, there is a need to understand and control the properties and interactions of xyloglucan with other compounds, to decipher the relationship between xyloglucan structure and function, and in particular the effect of different branching patterns. However, due to the structural heterogeneity of the polysaccharide as obtained from natural sources, relevant studies have not been possible to perform in practise. This fact has stimulated an interest in synthetic methods to obtain xyloglucan mimics and analogs with well-defined structure and decoration patterns.</p><p>Glycosynthases are hydrolytically inactive mutant glycosidases that catalyse the formation of glycosidic linkages between glycosyl fluoride donors and glycoside acceptors. Since its first conception in 1998, the technology is emerging as a useful tool in the synthesis of large, complex polysaccharides. This thesis presents the generation and characterisation of glycosynthases based on xyloglucanase scaffolds for the synthesis of well-defined homogenous xyloglucan oligo- and polysaccharides with regular substitution patterns.</p>

This thesis presents the application of different protein engineering methods on enzymes and non-catalytic proteins that act upon xyloglucans. Xyloglucans are polysaccharides found as storage polymers in seeds and tubers, and as cross-linking glucans in the cell wall of plants. Their structure is complex with intricate branching patterns, which contribute to the physical properties of the polysaccharide including its binding to and interaction with other glucans such as cellulose. One important group of xyloglucan-active enzymes is encoded by the GH16 XTH gene family in plants, including xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XET) and xyloglucan endo-hydrolases (XEH). The molecular determinants behind the different catalytic routes of these homologous enzymes are still not fully understood. By combining structural data and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, interesting facts were revealed about enzyme-substrate interaction. Furthermore, a pilot study was performed using structure-guided recombination to generate a restricted library of XET/XEH chimeras. Glycosynthases are hydrolytically inactive mutant glycoside hydrolases (GH) that catalyse the formation of glycosidic linkages between glycosyl fluoride donors and glycoside acceptors. Different enzymes with xyloglucan hydrolase activity were engineered into glycosynthases, and characterised as tools for the synthesis of well-defined homogenous xyloglucan oligo- and polysaccharides with regular substitution patterns. Carbohydrate-binding modules (CBM) are non-catalytic protein domains that bind to polysaccharidic substrates. An important technical application involves their use as molecular probes to detect and localise specific carbohydrates in vivo. The three-dimensional structure of an evolved xyloglucan binding module (XGBM) was solved by X-ray diffraction. Affinity-guided directed evolution of this first generation XGBM resulted in highly specific probes that were used to localise non-fucosylated xyloglucans in plant tissue sections. / QC 20100902

Xyloglucans are polysaccharides found as storage polymers in seeds and tubers, and as cross-linking glycans in the cell wall of plants. Their structure is complex with intricate branching patterns, which contribute to the physical properties of the polysaccharide including its binding to and interaction with other glycans such as cellulose. Xyloglucan is widely used in bulk quantities in the food, textile and paper making industries. With an increasing interest in technically more advanced applications of xyloglucan, such as novel biocomposites, there is a need to understand and control the properties and interactions of xyloglucan with other compounds, to decipher the relationship between xyloglucan structure and function, and in particular the effect of different branching patterns. However, due to the structural heterogeneity of the polysaccharide as obtained from natural sources, relevant studies have not been possible to perform in practise. This fact has stimulated an interest in synthetic methods to obtain xyloglucan mimics and analogs with well-defined structure and decoration patterns. Glycosynthases are hydrolytically inactive mutant glycosidases that catalyse the formation of glycosidic linkages between glycosyl fluoride donors and glycoside acceptors. Since its first conception in 1998, the technology is emerging as a useful tool in the synthesis of large, complex polysaccharides. This thesis presents the generation and characterisation of glycosynthases based on xyloglucanase scaffolds for the synthesis of well-defined homogenous xyloglucan oligo- and polysaccharides with regular substitution patterns.