L’ouverture de la fenêtre des Combrailles apporte des enseignements nouveaux sur la puissance et la richesse de la cité des Arvernes.L’occupation du territoire est continue, de la Protohistoire au Moyen Âge, avec un très grand développement au moment de l’Empire romain.Le tracé des deux voies romaines majeures est établi : la densité de la population le long de leur passage prouve le rôle qu’elles ont joué.L’installation des habitats (avec la présence des élites) sur la totalité du territoire montre la complémentarité économique entre la capitale et la moyenne montagne.La densité des espaces miniers et l’exploitation de l’or à la période gauloise ont certainement contribué à la richesse des Arvernes. / The opening of the window of study of Combrailles provides new insights into the power and the wealth of the city of Arvernes.The occupacy of the territory is continuous from the Protohistory to the Middle Ages, with a great development at the time of the Roman Empire.The layout of two major ways is established : the density of population along their path proves the role they played.The settlement of the habitat (including those of the elites) on the whole territory shows the economic complementarity between rural areas and the cities.The density of mining spaces and the exploitation of gold during the Gallic period certainly contribute to the richness of Arvernes.

L’objectif de cette recherche est de comprendre comment des facteurs d’ordre social et environnemental ont influencé, en Amazonie brésilienne, le peuplement, l’appropriation et l’usage conjugué des ressouces naturelles, dans une région de transition entre des écosystèmes de plaines d’inondation et de terre ferme. L’approche adoptée est historique et ethnographique, afin d’examiner comment les relations de pouvoir et les pratiques sociales sont articulées au régime hydraulique de crues et d’étiages. Le lieu de l’étude est la région du Lago Grande do Curuai, dans la commune de Santarém (État du Pará), au croisement des communes d’Óbidos et Juruti. Je me suis interrogé sur de possibles continuités et ruptures entre les relations de pouvoir actuelles et celles de l’époque coloniale – relations qui influencent la circulation des hommes entre ces deux écosystèmes. Je conclue que les plaines d’inondation (várzeas) sont, aujourd’hui encore, contrôlées par des segments sociaux issus de l’élite locale, formés de propriétaires terriens et d’éleveurs de bovins. Ceux-ci ont construit leur pouvoir pendant la colonie portugaise et ont graditativement impulsé un mouvement vers des terres situées de plus en plus loin dans la terre ferme, avançant sur la forêt. Depuis 1950, l’élevage est la principale activité économique à l’origine de cette expansion, au moyen des pratiques liées à la transhumance du bétail. Parmi les facteurs qui induisent la circulation saisonnière entre la várzea et la terre ferme, la transhumance a reçu une attention particulière dans ce travail. Initialement réservée aux grands fazendeiros, cette pratique s’est popularisée dès les années 1970 parmi les différents profiles d’éleveurs, avec une intensification dans les années 1990. L’élevage repose sur trois pratiques locales qui favorisent la transumance : les « sociétés », les « permissions » et les locations de terrain (arrendamentos). Leur analyse conjointe m’a permis de montrer que les « sociétés » entre grands et petits éleveurs sont à l’origine de l’expansion de l’élevage. Cette activité va bien au-delà d’un « livret d’épargne » ; elle confère du prestige et une opportunité d’accéder régulièrement aux plaines d’inondation. Lors de la création, en 2005, d’un projet d’établissement agro-extractiviste – le PAE Lago Grande – afin de régulariser l’occupation foncière des populations régionales, seuls les terrains de terre ferme ont été intégrés dans la nouvelle unité territoriale. Ceux de várzea en ont été exclus. Les données disponibles permettent de montrer qu’au fond, la structure foncière n’a pas été modifiée. Dès lors, les relations de pouvoir historiquement inscrites dans ce paysage restent relativement inchangées. Enfin, la circulation des populations régionales entre ces deux écosystèmes ainsi que les pratiques de transhumance n’ont pas été prises en compte lors de la mise en œuvre des politiques de gestion territoriale en Amazonie. / The aim of this study is to understand the role of the social and environmental order influenced the peopling, land appropriation and the seasonal use of natural resources between floodplains (várzea) and firm land (terra firme) ecosystems in the Brazilian Amazon. I follow an historical and ethnographical approach to examine how social practices and the local power relations influenced the interrelated dynamic between social life and water movements (floods and droughts). The study area is Lago Grande, located in the city of Santarem, Pará State bordering the towns of Óbidos and Juruti. The main question is to investigate if power relations among social groups established and inherited during the colonial living in Lago Grande region are still operating in current times, and how this situation affects the control of transhumance between várzea and terra firme ecosystems. I conclude that the Amazon floodplains are still controlled by local elites, represented by land and livestock owners. The local elite established their socio-political power during colonial times, dominating an increasing process of entering from várzea to terra firme areas (i.e. deforestation). Since 1950, the main economical activity responsible for the expansion of land use from várzea to terra firme was cattle raising through transhumance between both ecosystems. Transumance has received a specific attention in this study, for it is among the main factors encouraging the circulation of local population between várzea and terra firme environments. From 1970’s, large farmers started the transhumance which was later followed by smaller farmers, and intensified through the 1990’s. Cattle ranching builds on three local practices which promote transhumance: “societies”, “permissions” and land rentals (arrendamentos). A joint analysis allowed me to demonstrate that “societies” between large and small farmers sustain the cattle ranching growth. This activity is lucrative and bestows prestige and opportunities to access the floodplains more regularly. In 2005, an Agro-extractivist Settlement was created (PAE Lago Grande) to favor land distribution and better economical opportunities among local populations. Though, the territorial unit included terra firme but not the areas of the várzea ecosystem, vital for the local economy part of the year. Additionally, the PAE also did not alter the land tenure, keeping the same historically constructed power structures it aimed to deconstruct. / O objetivo geral desta pesquisa foi compreender como fatores de ordem social e ambientalinfluenciaram o povoamento, a apropriação e o uso conjugado dos recursos naturais em umaregião de transição entre os ecossistemas de várzea e de terra firme na Amazônia brasileira.Adotei uma abordagem histórica e etnográfica para examinar como relações de poder e práticassociais mediaram a articulação da vida social ao regime de cheias e vazantes. A área eleita paraa realização da pesquisa foi a região do Lago Grande, localizada no município de Santarém-PA, na confluência com os municípios de Óbidos e Juruti. Questionei se seria possível, naatualidade, enxergar nas relações entre os segmentos sociais que coabitam a região do LagoGrande continuidades e rupturas com as relações de poder herdadas do período colonial e comotais relações poderiam estar intervindo na circulação humana entre os dois ecossistemas.Conclui-se que as várzeas ainda são controladas por segmentos das elites locais, formadas porproprietários de terras e gado. Estes fundaram seu poder no período colonial e lentamentecomandaram o processo de ampliação dos sistemas de uso da terra para os interiores da terrafirme. Desde 1950, a principal atividade econômica a impulsionar esta expansão tem sido apecuária, por meio da prática da transumância. Entre os diversos fatores que sustentam acirculação sazonal entre a várzea e a terra firme pela população local, a transumância recebeuatenção especial da pesquisa. Iniciada pelos grandes fazendeiros, a transumância se popularizouentre os diversos perfis de criadores a partir das décadas de 1970 e foi intensificada na décadade 1990. Três instituições comandam a atividade pecuária e logo sustentam a transumância: as“sociedades”, as permissões e os arrendamentos. Analisados em conjunto estes institutospermitiram que a pesquisa chegasse à conclusão de que as “sociedades” entre grandes epequenos criadores sustentam o crescimento da pecuária, atividade que muito mais do que umasimples poupança é sinônimo de prestígio e oportunidade de acesso regular a várzea. A criaçãode um projeto de assentamento agroextrativista em 2005, o PAE Lago Grande, anexou apenasa faixa de terra firme da região do Lago Grande, deixando as várzeas de fora. O PAE não anexouas várzeas e não alterou a estrutura fundiária em terra firme. Desta forma, pouco alterou asrelações de poder historicamente construídas. Por fim, considera-se que a circulação realizadaentre as populações regionais entre os dois ecossistemas, de maneira geral, e a transumância,em particular, não vem sendo levada em consideração nas políticas de ordenamento territorialna Amazônia.

L’étude vise à apprécier l’importance exacte du système routier du Mont-Genèvre et de l’entité administrative des Alpes Cottiennes dans les relations transalpines à l’époque romaine. Une première partie, sorte d’introduction à la circulation alpine dans l’Antiquité, envisage successivement les sources documentaires, en particulier la Table de Peutinger, les nouvelles données paléoenvironnementales, l’exploitation du trafic comme élément fondateur du découpage territorial préromain, la part du mythe et des connaissances réelles dans l’image des Alpes chez les Romains et, enfin, les conditions pratiques de déplacement dans le massif alpin. Tout au long des cinq siècles de domination romaine sont analysées les relations entre les évènements politico-militaires, la géographie administrative et le réseau viaire de la région étudiée. Le passage du royaume indigène indépendant à la préfecture romaine est revu à partir d’une remise en question de l’idée d’un vaste royaume préexistant à la conquête augustéenne et de la prétendue hostilité initiale de Cottius envers Rome. Parmi les arguments qui plaident pour une alliance de Cottius et d’Auguste vue comme un préliminaire à la conquête alpine et non comme son dernier acte, l’accent est mis sur le degré avancé de romanisation des Cottii, de la cité de Suse et de la voie du Mont-Genèvre. Le témoignage d’Ammien Marcellin sur la résistance du roi de Suse est récusé et le passage de Pline sur ‘les douze cités cottiennes qui ne furent pas hostiles’ interprété en faisant l’hypothèse de deux états successifs de la préfecture de Cottius.Il est montré ensuite comment, au cours des cinq siècles qui ont suivi la création de la préfecture, la voie du Mont-Genèvre demeura la voie transalpine la plus commode et, sans doute, la plus utilisée de toutes les Alpes occidentales. L’effet déterminant du développement du réseau routier cottien sur la municipalisation, la romanisation et l’économie des hautes vallées est mis en relief. La possibilité du passage de l’activité d’élevage de montagne à un stade productiviste basé sur la pratique de la transhumance est envisagée. Parmi les aspects du trafic transalpin sont abordées la place primordiale du cursus publicus, l’organisation douanière de la région et l’arrière-plan religieux des déplacements en montagne. La mise en évidence d’un véritable ‘système routier du Mont-Genèvre’, aménagé à partir de l’époque préfectorale, s’appuie sur l’étude de la carte archéologique et sur une prospection de terrain. Celle-ci a porté d’abord sur la voie du Mont-Genèvre, révélant pour le secteur durancien un tracé différent de celui envisagé par les rares études antérieures. De nombreux arguments sont rassemblés en faveur de l’existence d’une voie romaine franchissant le col du Petit Mont-Cenis et conduisant au limes rhénan. En ce qui concerne la voie qui empruntait probablement le col de Larche, le tracé proposé franchit sans grande difficulté le prétendu obstacle de la basse vallée de l’Ubaye. Deux autres voies du système du Mont-Genèvre ont été étudiées en détails. Sur la voie du col du Lautaret sont apportés quelques éléments nouveaux, en particulier dans la zone de la Porte Romaine de Bons et dans celle de la section taillée près de Bourg d’Oisans. Quant à la voie tracée sur la Table de Peutinger entre Luc-en-Diois et le Mont-Genèvre, elle fait l’objet d’un examen graphique sur le document et de reconnaissances sur le terrain, sans réussir à démontrer la réalité de cette liaison. / The study addresses the Mont-Genèvre road and the Cottian Alps district as playing a major rôle in the transalpine traffic during the Roman period. A general chapter upon alpine circulation in the Antiquity reviews the following subjects: recent paleoclimatic data, control of an itinerary in the genesis of preroman tribes’ settlement, actual knowledge of Alps by Romans, and practical traveling conditions through mountains.Relationships between politico-military events, territorial limits and road network are analysed along five centuries of Roman presence. The idea of a vast preroman kingdom ruled by Cottius is not shared. The transition from independence to the status of roman prefecture is viewed as a preliminary decision of August and not as a final event of the Alps conquest. Ammianus alleged hostility of Cottius to Rome, but his testimony has to be rejected. Pline’s allusion to the twelve cottian cities which were not hostile is explained by supposing an early transitory state of the prefecture.It is explained how the development of the road network allowed promotion of some cities to municipal status, favoured romanisation and boosted the economy of high valleys. An intensification of pastoralism through the practice of transhumance is suggested. Related aspects of the alpine traffic, as cursus publicus, Quadragesima Galliarum and religious beliefs of travellers are examined. Evidences for the existence of a ‘Mont-Genèvre roads system’, constructed since the time of the prefecture, are derived from archaeological registries and local exploration. Concerning the road of the Durance valley, within cottian frontiers, it appears to follow a quite different course from the one proposed until now. Arguments are gathered favouring the existence of a roman road running across the Petit Mont-Cenis and leading to the Rhenan limes. The road which very likely runs over the col de Larche (or de la Madeleine) and through the Ubaye valley appears to join easily the Durance valley contrary to some previous opinions. Two other routes of the Mont-Genèvre system are studied in detail. One crosses the col du Lautaret and its two remaining sections are carefully examined, namely the Porte Romaine de Bons and the rock-cutted segment near Bourg d’Oisans. The second road, between Luc-en-Diois and the Mont-Genèvre, appears only on the Tabula Peutingeriana. Graphical examination of the drawing and local investigation does not allow a definitive conclusion upon the reality of this route.

This study examines the current pastoralists' education situation in Uganda in the context of the education policy established, and non-formal education interventions being conducted among the Bahima and Karimojong pastroralists by both Governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations, as an attempt to address the problems and issues of illiteracy and pastoral development. It is evident that education for pastoralists in Uganda creates a social consciousness with values, norms, knowledge and skills, which have a complex and dynamic relationship among the pastoralists. The problems of investigation in this research focus on information available on the functioning of pastoralism for effective provision of non-formal education programmes to the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists; and how effectively the providers of non-formal education programmes can integrate the nomadic livelihood in the provision of non-formal education The literature review has focused on the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists, but attempts have also been made to draw relevant lessons from other nomadic groups like Gypsies, travellers, and occupational travellers. The review has been intended to sharpen specific aspects related to pastoral and national education practices that can enable appropriate and strategic provision and implementation of non-formal education programmes to occur among the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists in their pastoral context. Qualitative research methods used in the study were fundamentally relevant and suited for locating the meaning that semi-nomadic Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists placed on events, processes and structures of their lives, their perceptions, assumptions, prejudgments, presumptions, and for connecting these meanings to the social world around them. Presentation and analysis of data is divided into three sections including a recast of the items in the interview schedules, a summary of the research findings presented on a conceptually clustered Matrix Sheet, and a presentation of the data analysis resulting form the data displayed on the Matrix Sheet. Recommendations of the study have been clustered under the following three thematic categories: · Relevance of non-formal education programmes to the Bahima and Karimojong pastoraslist, · Factors for implementation of non-formal education programmes, and · Strategies for implementation and sustenance of non-formal education programmes among the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists. / Educational Studies / MED (COMPARATIVE EDUCATION)

This study examines the current pastoralists' education situation in Uganda in the context of the education policy established, and non-formal education interventions being conducted among the Bahima and Karimojong pastroralists by both Governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations, as an attempt to address the problems and issues of illiteracy and pastoral development. It is evident that education for pastoralists in Uganda creates a social consciousness with values, norms, knowledge and skills, which have a complex and dynamic relationship among the pastoralists. The problems of investigation in this research focus on information available on the functioning of pastoralism for effective provision of non-formal education programmes to the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists; and how effectively the providers of non-formal education programmes can integrate the nomadic livelihood in the provision of non-formal education The literature review has focused on the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists, but attempts have also been made to draw relevant lessons from other nomadic groups like Gypsies, travellers, and occupational travellers. The review has been intended to sharpen specific aspects related to pastoral and national education practices that can enable appropriate and strategic provision and implementation of non-formal education programmes to occur among the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists in their pastoral context. Qualitative research methods used in the study were fundamentally relevant and suited for locating the meaning that semi-nomadic Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists placed on events, processes and structures of their lives, their perceptions, assumptions, prejudgments, presumptions, and for connecting these meanings to the social world around them. Presentation and analysis of data is divided into three sections including a recast of the items in the interview schedules, a summary of the research findings presented on a conceptually clustered Matrix Sheet, and a presentation of the data analysis resulting form the data displayed on the Matrix Sheet. Recommendations of the study have been clustered under the following three thematic categories: · Relevance of non-formal education programmes to the Bahima and Karimojong pastoraslist, · Factors for implementation of non-formal education programmes, and · Strategies for implementation and sustenance of non-formal education programmes among the Bahima and Karimojong pastoralists. / Educational Studies / MED (COMPARATIVE EDUCATION)