A regulação da localização de proteínas é um dos aspectos fundamentais na biologia celular vegetal. Os cloroplastos importam mais de 90% de suas proteínas do citosol, portanto, é importante caracterizar os fatores citosólicos que podem estar envolvidos no direcionamento de proteínas para as organelas. Um ensaio de duplohíbrido em leveduras com as proteínas cloroplastidiais HMPPK/TMPPase (TH1) e Glutamina Sintetase (GS) II usados como iscas revelou que a forma citosólica da glutamil-tRNA sintetase - GluRS (At5g26710) de Arabidopsis thaliana interagiu com ambas as proteínas. Estudos de Complementação da Fluorescência Bimolecular (BiFC) confirmaram tais interações in planta. Estudos com deleções na região Nterminal da GluRS mostraram que esta região é responsável pelas interações com HMPPK/TMPPase e GSII. Além disso, seis resíduos de aminoácidos parecem ser cruciais para a interação entre as proteínas. Curiosamente, foi mostrado que a GluRS está envolvida na localização de proteínas em leveduras. A fim de obter mais informações sobre o envolvimento da GluRS ns localização de proteínas nos cloroplastos, foram produzidos plantas de tabaco transgênicas expressando uma proteína quimérica, feita pela fusão do gene codificador da HMPPK/TMPPase, TH1- GFP, e GSII-GFP e posteriormente usados em ensaios de agroinfiltração com RNA de interferência (RNAi) para GluRS. Análises em microscópio confocal mostraram que TH1-GFP e GSII-GFP acumulam no citosol em vez de serem direcionados aos cloroplastos. Neste trabalho, mostramos pela primeira vez que a GluRS está envolvida na localização de proteínas cloroplastidiais em plantas e esse mecanismo é também conservado em Saccharomyces cerevisiae. / Regulation of protein localization is one of the key aspects in plant cell biology. Chloroplasts import more than 90% of their proteins from the cytosol, therefore, it is important to identify and characterize cytosolic factors that might be involved in protein delivery to the organelar envelope. A yeast two-hybrid screen with a chloroplastlocalized HMPPK/TMPPase protein and glutamine synthetase (GS), used as baits, revealed that the cytosolic form of the glutamyl-tRNA synthetase (GluRS) (At5g26710) from Arabidopsis thaliana interacted with both proteins. Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) studies confirmed such interactions in planta. Deletion studies of GluRS showed that the N-terminal region of the protein is responsible for proteinprotein interactions (PPI) with TH1 and GS. In addition, six amino acid residues appeared to be crucial for PPI. Interestingly, GluRS has been also shown to be involved in regulating protein localization in yeast. In order to gain more information about the involvement of GluRS on protein localization in chloroplasts, we produced transgenic tobacco plants expressing a chimeric protein made by the fusion of TH1- GFP and GSIIGFP and agroinfiltrated with a RNA interference (RNAi) construct against GluRS. Confocal analysis showed that TH1-GFP and GSII-GFP accumulated in the cytosol instead of being targeted to chloroplasts. Here, we show for the same time that GluRS is involved in protein localization in plants and this mechanism is also conserved in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Parmi les petits ARN non codants, les fragments dérivant d’ARNt (tRF) ont été identifiés dans tous les embranchements de la vie. Cependant, très peu de donnée existe sur les tRF de plantes. Les populations de tRF issues de plusieurs banques de petits ARN (différents tissus, plantes soumises à des stress abiotiques, ou fractions immunoprécipitées avec la protéine ARGONAUTE1) ont été analysées. Les populations sont essentiellement constituées de tRF-5D ou des tRF-3T (clivage dans la boucle D ou T respectivement) et elles varient d’une banque à l’autre. Par une approche in silico suivie de tests de clivage in vitro, des RNases T2 d’A. thaliana (RNS) ont été identifiées comme étant capables de cliver les ARNt dans la région de l’anticodon, de la boucle D et de la boucle T. Lors de l’étude de l’expression des RNS, nous avons observé que deux d’entre elles sont fortement exprimées à un stade de maturation tardif des siliques. Ainsi, la population en tRF issue de stades de développement avancés des siliques a été analysée. Des expériences de carences en phosphate nous ont permis de démontrer l’implication d’une des RNS dans la genèse de tRF dans A. thaliana. Au final, nos données ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives quant à l’implication des RNS et des tRF comme des acteurs majeurs dans l’expression des gènes chez les plantes. / Among the small ncRNAs, tRNA-derived RNA fragments (tRFs) were identified in all domains of life. However, only few data report on plants tRFs. Short tRF were retrieved from A. thaliana small RNA libraries (various tissues, plants submitted to abiotic stress or argonaute immunoprecipitated fractions). Mainly tRF-5D or tRF-3T (cleavage in the D or T region respectively) were found, and fluctuations in the tRF population were observed.Using in vitro approaches, A. thaliana RNase T2 endoribonucleases (RNS) were shown to cleave tRNAs in the anticodon region but also in the D or T region. Through a whole study of RNS expression, we show that two RNS are also strongly expressed in the siliques at a late stage of development. Thus, we analyzed the tRF population of this particular developmental stage. Upon phosphate starvation, we demonstrate also the implication of one RNS in the production of tRFs in planta. Altogether, our data open new perspectives for RNS and tRFs as major actors of gene expression inplants.

The studies reported in this thesis describe the work done in the area of translation initiation where a previously unknown role of multiple copies of initiator tRNA in E. coli has been reported. Also the role of SsrA resume codon in resumption of translation, until not clearly known has been reported here. Chapter -1 discusses the relevant literature in understanding translation and initiator tRNA selection on the ribosome during initiation. It also discusses the literature pertaining to the aspect of release of stalled ribosomal complexes by SsrA. This is followed by the next chapter (chapter- 2) which discusses the materials and methods used throughout the study. Chapter- 3 describes the studies leading to the role of multiple copies of initiator tRNA in E. coli in governing the fidelity of initiator tRNA selection on the P site of the ribosome. This is followed by Chapter-4 which describes the role of the resume codon of the SsrA in governing the efficiency of trans-translation in releasing the stalled ribosomal complexes. The summaries of the chapters 3 and chapter 4 are briefly described below. i) Role of conserved 3GC base pairs of initiator tRNA in the initiator-elongator tRNA discrimination. Translation initiation is the first step in the very important and highly conserved biological process of protein biosynthesis. The process involves many steps, a wide array of protein factors at each specialized step and a large ribonucleoprotein particle; the ribosome to decode the information of the mRNA template into biologically active proteins. The process of initiation is still unclear largely due to fewer reports of available structural data. One of the very interesting questions that people have been trying to address is how the initiator tRNA is selected on the P- site of the ribosome and what is the importance of the conserved three GC base pairs in the anticodon stem of the initiator tRNA. Here in this study, I have studied this question by using the classical genetic technique of generating and characterizing the mutant initiator tRNA defective at the step of initiation. I have identified and analyzed the suppressors which are capable of rescuing this defect in initiation. The study involves two such E. coli suppressor strains (named D4 and D27). These suppressors can initiate translation from a reporter CAT mRNA with amber codon, independent of the presence of the three consecutive GC base pairs in the anticodon stem of initiator tRNAs. Mapping of the mutations revealed that the mutants are defective in expression of the tRNA1fMet (metZVW) gene locus which encodes the initiator tRNA. Both the suppressors (D4 and D27) also allow initiation with elongator tRNA species in E. coli. Taken together, the results show that E. coli when deficient in the initiator tRNA concentration can lead to initiation with elongator tRNA species. ii) The Role of SsrA/tmRNA in ribosome recycling and rescue. Occasionally during the process of translation, the ribosomes stall on the mRNA before the polypeptide synthesis is complete. This situation is detrimental to the organism because of the sequestration of the tRNAs as ‘peptidyl tRNAs’ and the ribosomes. In E. coli one of the pathways to rescue stalled ribosomes involves disassembly of these stalled complexes to release peptidyl tRNAs which are then recycled by peptidyl tRNA hydrolase (Pth), an essiential enzyme in E. coli. The other pathway which is not essential in E. coli but is conserved in all prokaryotes involves SsrA or tmRNA (transfer messenger RNA). The tmRNA is charged with alanine and recognizes the stalled ribosomal complexes and acts as tRNA to bind the A-site. It also functions as mRNA by adding a undecapeptide (which is actually a tag for degradation by cellular proteases) to the existing polypeptide and there is normal resumption of the translation. In most sequences of SsrA ORF, the first codon of the ORF, called as resume codon, is conserved. I wanted to understand the importance of the conservation of the resume codon. Towards this end I randomly mutated the resume codon and studied the effect of the altered resume codon in the rescue of stalled ribosomal complexes. The effect of over-expression of these mutants was investigated in the rescue of the Pthts defect since it is known that the overexpression of SsrA rescues the temperature sensitive phenotype of the Pthts strain and so causes less accumulation of peptidyl–tRNA in E. coli .The effect for these mutants has also been studied by the growth of hybrid λimmP22 phages. I also used AGA minigene system to study the effect of various mutants which has been shown to sequester tRNAArg (UCU) in the ribosomal P-site, translation of this minigene causes toxicity to E. coli. I have tried to study the effect of the SsrA mutants in rescue of toxicity caused by the minigene. Overall, the observations indicate that the conservation of the resume codon is important in E. coli and having mutated resume codon probably leads to deficient trans-translation during one or the other growth conditions.

Bacteriophages (hereafter referred as phages) can translate their mRNAs efficiently by maximizing the use of codons decoded by the most abundant tRNAs of their bacterial hosts. Translation efficiency directly influences phage fitness and evolution. Reengineered phages find application in controlling their host population in both health and industry. The objective of this thesis work is to examine the factors shaping codon choices of single stranded DNA (ssDNA) and double stranded DNA (dsDNA) Escherichia coli phages. In chapter two, we employed two indices, rRSCU (correlation in relative synonymous codon usage between phages and their hosts) and CAI (codon adaptation index) to measure codon adaptation in phages. None of the analyzed ssDNA phages encode tRNAs while some dsDNA phages encode their own tRNAs. Both rRSCU and CAI are negatively correlated with number of tRNA genes encoded by these dsDNA phages. We observed significantly greater rRSCU for dsDNA phages (without tRNAs) than ssDNA phages. In addition, we propose that ssDNA phages have evolved a novel codon adaptation strategy to overcome the disruptive effect of their high C→T mutation rates in codon adaptation with host. In chapter three, we formulated an index phi to measure selection by host translation machinery and to present explicit linear and nonlinear models to characterize the effect of C→T mutation and host-tRNA-mediated selection on phage codon usage. The effect of selection (phi) on codon usage is detectable in most dsDNA and ssDNA phage species. C→T mutations also interfere with nonsynonymous substitutions at second codon positions, especially in ssDNA phages. Strand asymmetry along with the accompanying local variation in mutation bias can significantly affect codon adaptation in both dsDNA and ssDNA phages.

Throughout evolution, plants have developed a sophisticated network of signaling pathways allowing the activation and regulation of immune responses. The identification of metabolic pathways which are involved in modulating the intensity of that immune responses is an important challenge in the field of plant-pathogen interaction. With this aim, we performed two genetic approaches in Arabidopsis thaliana against the disease caused by the hemibiotroph bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. We demonstrate that the regulation of two pathways, related between them, is crucial to activate an effective immune response. By means of a genetic screening of regulators components of plant immunity, we identified the mutant scs9 (suppressor of csb3) which shows an affected resistance that triggers a enhanced susceptibility to P.s. DC3000 through an independent pathway of salicylic acid (SA)-mediated immune response. The cloning and characterization of SCS9 reveals that it codes for 2'-O-ribose tRNA methyltransferase. Our results indicate that the SCS9-mediated methylation of nucleosides N32 and N34, located in the tRNAs anticodon loop, is crucial for the plant immunity effectiveness. On the other hand, with a chemical genetic screening of agonist molecules of the immune response, we identified the sulfonamides as priming inducer molecules that exhibit a faster and/or stronger activation of SA-related defense responses and enhanced resistance to P.s. DC3000. Analysis of the mechanism of action of these molecules reveals that synthesis and accumulation of folates exert a SA-independent negative control on the immune response to P.s. DC3000. Through comparative proteomic analysis we identified the 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltriglutamate homocysteine methyltransferase 1 (methione synthase, here named as METS1), enzyme responsible of the methionine synthesis in the folate-dependent 1C metabolism and overaccumulated in scs9 mutants, as modulator component in the immune response to P.s. DC3000. We observed that the overexpression of METS1 in transgenic plants of Arabidopsis suppresses plant immune responses and promotes enhanced susceptibility to P.s. DC3000. This repressor effect is due to a genome-wide increase in DNA methylation level, which is mediated by the overaccumulation of METS1 and the consequent increase of folate-dependent methionine synthesis. Therefore, the findings of this work provide a deeper knowledge about the mechanisms by which the DNA methylation and epigenetic regulation exert an influence on plant immunity through folate metabolism, particularly by METS1, whose synthesis is regulated through specific tRNA modifications mediated by SCS9. / Las plantas, a lo largo de la evolución, han desarrollado un sofisticado entramado de rutas de señalización que permiten la activación y el control de la respuesta inmune. Identificar qué procesos metabólicos participan en modular la amplitud de dicha respuesta inmune es un reto en el campo de la interacción planta-patógeno. Con este propósito, se han utilizado dos aproximaciones genéticas llevadas a cabo en Arabidopsis thaliana contra la infección por la bacteria hemibiotrofa Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. Los resultados ponen de manifiesto la importancia de la regulación de dos mecanismos, a su vez relacionados, para la activación de una respuesta inmune efectiva. Mediante un rastreo genético en busca de componentes reguladores de la inmunidad, identificamos el mutante que denominamos scs9 (supresor de csb3). scs9 muestra una resistencia afectada que conlleva un incremento en la susceptibilidad a P.s. DC3000 a través de un mecanismo independiente a la respuesta inmune mediada por ácido salicílico (SA). La clonación y caracterización de SCS9 revela que codifica una 2'-O-ribosa metiltransferasa de tRNA. Nuestros resultados indican que la modificación por metilación mediada por SCS9 de los nucleósidos N32 y N34 de la región anticodón de los tRNAs, es clave para la inmunidad de la planta. Por otro lado, mediante un rastreo de genética química en busca de moléculas agonistas de la respuesta inmune, identificamos un grupo de sulfonamidas como moléculas activadoras de un mecanismo de priming. Este conlleva una más rápida y/o más intensa activación de la respuesta defensiva dependiente de SA y de un incremento de la resistencia frente a P.s. DC3000. El análisis del mecanismo de acción de dichas moléculas revela que la síntesis y acumulación de folatos ejerce un control negativo sobre la respuesta inmune frente a P.s. DC3000; y ese control es ejercido de manera independiente a la ruta de señalización mediada por SA. A través de un análisis proteómico comparativo identificamos la proteína 5-metiltetrahidropteroiltriglutamato homocisteína metiltransferasa 1 (metionina sintasa, denominada aquí METS1), responsable de la síntesis de metionina en el metabolismo C1 dependiente de folatos y sobreacumulada en los mutantes scs9. Esta proteína participa entonces como componente modulador de la respuesta inmune a P.s. DC3000. La sobreexpresión de METS1 en plantas transgénicas observamos que suprime la respuesta inmune y conlleva a un incremento en la susceptibilidad frente a P.s. DC3000. Dicho efecto represor de la resistencia acontece a raíz de un incremento del nivel de metilación de DNA en todo el genoma mediado por la sobreacumulación de METS1 y del consiguiente posible aumento en la síntesis de metionina dependiente de folatos. Por tanto, estos resultados ahondan en el conocimiento de cómo la metilación de DNA y el control epigenético ejercen una influencia sobre la respuesta inmune. Esta influencia puede ser controlada a través del metabolismo de folatos, y en particular a través de METS1, enzima cuya síntesis está a su vez controlada por determinadas modificaciones de tRNA mediadas por SCS9. / Les plantes, al llarg de l'evolució, han desenvolupat un sofisticat entramat de rutes de senyalització que permeten l'activació i el control de la resposta immune. Identificar quins procesos metabòlics participen en la modulació de l'amplitud d'aquesta resposta immune és un repte en el camp de la interacció planta-patogen. Amb aquest propòsit, s'han utilitzat dues aproximacions genètiques en Arabidopsis thaliana en resposta a la infecció pel bacteri hemibiotrofo Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. Els resultats posen de manifest la importància de la regulació de dos mecanismes, al seu torn relacionats, per a l'activació d'una resposta immune efectiva. Mitjançant un rastreig genètic per a la recerca de components reguladors de la immunitat, es va identificar el mutant que denominem scs9 (supresor de csb3). scs9 mostra una resistència afectada que comporta un increment en la susceptibilitat a P.s. DC3000 fent ús d'un mecanisme independent a la resposta immune mediada per l'àcid salicílic (SA). La clonació i caracterització de SCS9 revela que codifica una 2'-O-ribosa metiltransferasa de tRNA. Els nostres resultats indiquen que la modificació per metilació mediada per SCS9 dels nucleòsids N32 i N34 de la regió anticodó dels tRNAs, és clau per a la immunitat de la planta. D'altra banda, per mitjà d'un rastreig de genètica química per a la recerca de molècules agonistes de la resposta immune, es va identificar un grup de sulfonamidas com a molècules activadores d'un mecanisme de priming. Aquest, comporta una més rápida i/o més intensa activació de la resposta defensiva dependent de SA i d'un increment de la resistència enfront de P.s. DC3000. L'anàlisi del mecanisme d'acció d'aquestes molècules revela que la síntesis i acumulació de folats exerceix un control negatiu sobre la resposta immune davant el bacteri P.s. DC3000; i eixe control és exercit de manera independent a la ruta de senyalització mediada per SA. Amb un anàlisi proteòmic comparatiu es va identificar la proteïna 5-metiltetrahidropteroiltriglutamato homocisteína metiltransferasa 1 (metionina sintasa, denominada ací METS1), responsable de la síntesi de metionina al metabolisme C1 dependent de folats i sobreacumulada en els mutants scs9. Aquesta, així doncs, es troba participant com a component modulador de la resposta immune a P.s. DC3000. La sobreexpressió de METS1 en plantes transgèniques suprimeix la resposta immune i comporta a un increment en la susceptibilitat per P.s. DC3000. L'efecte repressor de la resistència succeïx arran d'un increment del nivell de metilació de DNA en tot el genoma, mediat per la sobreacumulació de METS1 i del consegüent posible augment en la síntesi de metionina dependent de folats. Per tant, aquests resultats aprofundixen en el coneixement de com la metilació de DNA i el control epigenètic exerceixen una influència sobre la resposta immune. Aquesta influència pot ser controlada mitjançant el metabolisme de folats, i en particular a través de l'enzim METS1, la síntesi de la qual està al seu torn controlada per determinades modificacions de tRNA mediades per SCS9. / González García, B. (2017). Implicación de las modificaciones de tRNA y del metabolismo de los folatos en la respuesta inmune de Arabidopsis [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/86162 / TESIS

Covalent nucleotide modifications in RNAs affect numerous biological processes, and novel functions are continually being revealed even for well-known modifications. Among all RNA species, transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are highly enriched with diverse modifications, which are known to play roles in decoding and tRNA stability, charging, and cellular trafficking. However, studies of tRNA modifications have been limited in a small scale and performed by groups with different methodologies. To systematically compare the functions of a large set of noncoding RNA modifications in translational regulation, I carried out ribosome profiling in 57 budding yeast mutants lacking nonessential genes involved in tRNA modifications. Deletion mutants with enzymes known to modify the anticodon loop or non-tRNA substrates such as rRNA exhibited the most dramatic translational perturbations, including altered dwell time of ribosomes on relevant codons, and altered ribosome density in protein-coding regions or untranslated regions of specific genes. Several mutants that result in loss of tRNA modifications in locations away from the anticodon loop also exhibited altered dwell time of ribosomes on relevant codons. Translational upregulation of the nutrient-responsive transcription factor Gcn4 was observed in roughly half of the mutants, consistent with the previous studies of Gcn4 in response to numerous tRNA perturbations. This work also discovered unexpected roles for tRNA modifying enzymes in rRNA 2’-O-methylation, and in transcriptional regulation of TY retroelements. Taken together, this work revealed the importance and novel functions of tRNA modifications, and provides a rich resource for discovery of additional links between tRNA modifications and gene regulation.

No description available.

In prokaryotes, protein synthesis and folding are often coupled, and the protein begins to fold from the N-terminus as it is being synthesized. It has been hypothesised that there could be kinetic coupling of the speed of translation and the folding, which means that an altered rate of synthesis can cause a possible misfolding of the protein. Testing this hypothesis will be impactful for protein misfolding diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s etc., and also help in the study of the effect of synonymous, non-synonymous and rare codon changes on a protein. However, research works in this regard are far and few and none of them have been carried out in a homologous in vitro system. This project is an attempt to study the co-translational folding of Escherichia coli protein dihydro folate reductase (DHFR) using an E. coli reconstituted transcription/ translation system (RTTF) in vitro. The preparatory phase involves: preparation of UAG mutants of the DHFR DNA (for site-specific incorporation of fluorescent dyes), preparation of amber tRNAs which recognise the UAG codons, aminoacylation of the tRNAs and labelling the amino acids with fluorescent dyes. The experimental phase involves: incorporation of each of the fluorescent amino acids in the protein during in vitro synthesis in steady-state, observing incorporation of the same in stopped-flow spectrofluorimeter, attempting to observe fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the two dyes due to co-translational folding. The preparatory and experimental phases were completed successfully, and it has been established that the amino acids with the fluorescent moieties can be incorporated site specifically in the mutant protein. The synthesis of the protein was observed using stopped-flow spectrometer for each of the fluorescent amino acids individually.  The synthesis of the mutants using two sets of dye pairs was also observed using a steady-state fluorimeter as well as stopped-flow spectrofluorimeter and the FRET between the two fluorophores was obtained. Although further experiments are required to fully validate and standardize this technique,  it will, even now,  aid in the study of the folding of proteins in a cell-free system.

Les ribozymes sont des ARN naturels ou artificiels possédant une activité catalytique. Les ribozymes artificiels ont été identifiés in vitro par la méthode SELEX, et plusieurs d'entre eux ont été caractérisés par des études cinétiques. Ces molécules sont impliquées dans des réactions de clivage, de ligation, de modification d'extrémités d'ARN, de polymérisation, de phosphorylation et d'activation de groupements acyl. Parce qu'elle est nécessaire à la traduction, l'aminoacylation des ARN joue un rôle évolutif important dans la transition du monde de l'ARN vers le monde moderne de l'ADN et des protéines, et elle est centrale à l'établissement du code génétique. Plusieurs ribozymes catalysant le transfert d'acides aminés à partir de cofacteurs activants ont pu être isolés et caractérisés depuis une vingtaine d'années, ce qui a documenté la possibilité d'aminoacylation d'ARNt en l'absence des aminoacyl ARNt synthétases. En développant un nouveau protocole SELEX basé sur l'oxydation au périodate, le but de notre travail est de découvrir de nouveau ribozymes d'une taille de l'ordre d'une vingtaine de nucléotides pouvant combiner la catalyse de l'activation des acides aminé et la transestérification. Bien que des molécules catalysant l'une ou l'autre des deux réactions ont été identifiées, aucun ribozyme n'existe à ce jour qui puisse utiliser des acides aminés libres et un cofacteur activant pour réaliser l'aminoacylation en 3' dans un même milieu réactionnel. La sélection de molécules actives dans une approche SELEX exige la présence de régions constantes sur les deux extrémités des séquences pools aléatoires initiaux. Ces régions sont nécessaires pour l'amplification par PCR, mais elles imposent des contraintes importantes pour l'identification de ribozymes car elles peuvent complètement inhiber leur activité par interférence structurelle. Nous présentons un protocole optimisé qui minimise la taille de ces régions constantes. D'autre part, notre nouveau design est très spécifique pour la sélection d'ARN aminoacylés sur l'extrémité 3'. Ce protocole a été utilisé pour réaliser 6 à 7 cycles de sélection avec différents pools, et un enrichissement en séquences spécifiques a pu être mis en évidence. Bien que certains tests avec les pools sélectionnés a révélé une activité possible, des essais avec des séquences spécifiques de ces pools n'ont pour l'instant pas pu confirmer l'activité catalytique recherchée. Un protocole basé sur le même principe de sélection a été utilisé dans une étude parallèle pour identifier les ARN aminoacylés présents dans l'ARN total d'Escherichia coli. Dans ce deuxième travail, note but est d'identifier tous les d'ARN aminoacylés par séquençage massif, avec à la clé la découverte possible de molécules autres que les ARNt et ARNtm. En utilisant les ARNt comme modèle, nous nous sommes aperçus qu'un protocole RNAseq standard n'était pas adapté à cause des bases modifiées présentes sur ces molécules. Nous avons développé et mis au point un nouveau protocole pour l'identification de n'importe quelle séquence aminoacylée en 3'. La nouvelle approche présentée devrait permette l'étude exhaustive de l'aminoacylation de toutes les séquences présentes dans l'ARN total. / Ribozymes are natural or in vitro selected RNA molecules possessing a catalytic activity. Artificial ribozymes have been extensively investigated by in vitro SELEX experiments, and characterized by kinetic assays. Ribozymes are involved in RNA cleavage, ligation, capping, polymerization, phosphorylation and acyl activation. Because it is required for translation, RNA aminoacylation plays an important role in the evolution from the late RNA world to the modern DNA and protein world, and is central to the genetic code. Several ribozymes catalyzing amino acid transfer from various activating groups have already been selected and characterized in the past two decades, documenting the possibility of tRNA aminoacylation in the absence of aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. With a newly designed SELEX protocol based on periodate oxydation, the aim of our investigation is to uncover small ribozymes of the order of 20 nucleotides that could catalyze both amino acid activation and transesterification. Although molecules catalyzing either reaction have been identified, no existing ribozyme could use free amino acids and activating cofactor(s) as substrates for 3' esterification in a single reactional context. The selection of active molecules in a SELEX procedure requires the presence of constant tracks on both ends of the sequences constituting the initial random pools. These tracks are required for PCR amplification, but they impose significant burden to the identification of ribozymes because they can prevent any activity through structural inhibition. We present an optimized protocol that significantly minimizes the size of these constant tracks. At the same time, our newly design protocol is very specific for the selection of 3'-end aminoacylated RNA. Working with this protocol, we performed 6 to 7 cycles of selection with different pools, and observed an enrichement with specific sequences. Although some experiments performed with entire pools did reveal a possible activity, no activity could be so far confirmed with specific sequences. A similar protocol was also applied in a parallel study to identify aminoacylated RNA from total RNA in Escherichia coli. In this other approach, our goal is to possibly identify new classes of aminoacylated RNA while using the deep sequencing technology. Using tRNA to validate our protocol, we realized that a standard RNAseq procedure could not work due to the presence of modified bases. We established a new method for bank preparation to identify any sequence aminoacylated at the 3' end. Ultimately, this new approach will allow us to study the level of aminoacylation of any sequence present in total RNA.

Mitochondria are organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. They generate most of the cells adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply which make them essential for cell viability. It is assumed that they are derived from a proteobacterial ancestor as they retain their own, drastically small genome. The importance in studying mitochondrial genome evolution came from the discovery of a large number of human diseases that are caused by mitochondrial dysfunction (e.g., Parkinson and Alzheimer). Many of these diseases are a result of a mutation in one of the mitochondrial genes or a defective mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) maintenance, mostly caused by genetic defects in proteins involved in mtDNA replication. In order to explore the diversity and understand the evolution of mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) in animals, multiple methods have been developed in this study to deal with two biological problems related to the mitochondrial genome evolution. A new method for identifying the mitochondrial origins of replication is presented. This method deals with the problem of determining the origins of replication, which despite many previous efforts has remained non-trivial even in the small genomes of animal mitochondria. The replication mechanism is of central interest to understand the evolution of mitochondrial genomes since it allows the duplication of the genetic information. The extensive work that has been done to study the replication of mitochondrial genomes has generated the assumption of the strand displacement model (SDM) also known as the standard model of replication that is known to leave the mitochondrial H-strand in a single stranded state exposing it to mutation and damage. Later on, other models of replication have been suggested such as the strand coupled bidirectional replication model, its refinement which assumes the bidirectional mode but with a unidirectional start, and the \"RNA incorporation throughout the lagging strand\" (RITOLS) model proposed as a refinement of the strand displacement model. Based on the observation that the GC-skew is correlated with the distance from the replication origins in the light of the strand displacement model of replication, a new computational method to infer the position of both the heavy strand and the light strand origins from nucleotide skew data has been developed. The method has been applied in a comprehensive survey of deuterostome mitochondria where conserved positions of the replication origins for the vast majority of vertebrates and cephalochordates have been inferred. Deviations from the consensus picture are presumably associated with genome rearrangements. Additionally, two methods for the identification of tRNA remolding events throughout Metazoa have been developed. Remolding changes the identity of a tRNA by a duplication and a point mutation(s) of the anticodon. This new tRNA takes the identity of another tRNA which is then lost. This can lead to artifacts in the annotation of mitogenomes and thus in studies of mitogenomic evolution. In this work, novel methods are developed to detect tRNA remolding in large-scale data sets. The first method represents an extension of the similarity-based approach to determine remolding candidates with high confidence. This approach uses an extended set of criteria based on both sequence and structural similarities of the tRNAs in conjunction with statistical tests. The second method is a novel phylogeny-based likelihood method which evaluates specific topologies of gene phylogenies of the two tRNA families relevant to a putative remolding event. Both methods have been applied to survey tRNA remolding throughout animal evolution. At least three novel remolding events are identified in addition to the ones previously mentioned in the literature. A detailed analysis of these remoldings showed that many of them are derived ancestral events.