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Commercial aviation transportation has experienced an overwhelming growth over the years. However, this expansion has encountered an important barrier: noise. Several studies have shown that residents in these areas experience problems such as stress and sleep disturbance. These problems have translated into demands for a better quality of life from airport residents which in turn have translated into more stringent aircraft noise regulations. As a result, large amounts of resources have been diverted towards the improvement of existing noise attenuation technologies and the development of more effective ones. In terms of turbofan generated noise, the most widely used technology is that of absorbent materials or liners. In recent investigations Alonso et al. have combined Herschel/Quincke (HQ) tubes with liners. This combination has the potential of effectively controlling pure tones and broadband noise in inlet sections of modern turbofan engines. Since a comprehensive approach for engine noise reduction will involve both inlet and aft HQ-Liner systems, additional research efforts were needed to evaluate their performance at reducing aft fan radiation In the present work, a combination of traditional liners and Herschel/Quincke waveguide resonators for aft fan radiation control is proposed. A theoretical model is developed in order to predict noise reduction due to such systems. The newly developed tool was then utilized to design an HQ-liner that was installed and tested in the aft section of the NASA Active Noise Control Fan (ANCF) rig. This experimental data was utilized to prove the potential of these systems and to validate the mathematical model. Analytical predictions correlate well with experiments. The NASA ANCF rig is not representative of a real turbofan engine. In order to assess the behavior of HQ-Liners in a more realistic environment a new system was specifically designed for a generic turbofan engine and its performance analyzed. The sound field inside HQ tubes has been described assuming plane waves only. This assumption limits the model to frequencies below the tube first resonance. In order to overcome this limitation a new model accounting for higher order modes inside the tubes has been developed. / Ph. D.

Leaves and fruit of nine apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) genotypes were evaluated for insect injury in 1998 and 1999. Foliar and fruit injury from 12 insect species was inconsistently affected by genotype. Spraying trees with oil affected neither fruit insect injury nor fruit phytotoxicity. In choice feeding assays, incidence of Japanese beetle (JB) feeding and leaf area consumed was greater for 'Liberty' than for 'York.' Genotypes did not differ in no-choice feeding assays. Choice and no-choice feeding assays between apple and oak indicated that JB could distinguish host plants in an artificial environment. Trichome density appeared different among three genotypes. 'York', the non-preferred genotype, had highest specific leaf weight and concentration of phloridzin, a feeding repellent. 'Liberty' the preferred genotype, had the lowest specific leaf weight, and had the highest concentration of quercitrin, a feeding stimulant. Olfactory stimuli of JB was evaluated with a Y-tube olfactometer. Beetles preferred the side of the Y-tube containing leaf tissue of apple or Virginia creeper over the side with no leaf. Beetles did not choose one plant species over the other. Bias test of beetle orientation in the Y-tube olfactometer indicated that in the morning, but not the afternoon, beetles preferentially moved into the left side of the Y-tube. Humidity did not affect beetle orientation. In darkness JB preferred a leaf disc over a paper disc and beetles tended to remain on the leaf. / Ph. D.

The combination of traditional passive acoustic liners with Herschel-Quincke (HQ) waveguides is proposed in this work as a device for Turbofan Engine Noise Control. The approach consists of installing circumferential arrays of HQ tubes on the lined sector of the inlet of a turbofan engine. A theoretical model is developed to predict the performance of this system assuming that the engine inlet is a circular lined duct with uniform mean flow. The tube-duct interfaces are modeled as finite piston sources that couple the sound field inside the duct with the dynamics of the HQ tubes. The finite piston source radiation is modeled in terms of a new closed form Green's function, which is found as the solution of the non-homogeneous convected acoustic wave equation with soft wall boundary conditions. The Green's function is extended from a point source to a finite piston by using the Divergence Theorem in the appropriate form. The dynamics of the HQ tube are both modeled as plane waves inside a straight tube and experimentally determined. The experimental determination of the HQ-dynamics is undertaken using impedance tubes with a 4-microphone technique. The newly developed theoretical model was used to predict the performance of a combined HQ-Liner system, which was tested on a scale simulated turbofan rig. The model is validated for broadband noise with the experimental data obtained from this test rig. The analytical predictions are shown to correlate well with experimental data. The results of the application of a HQ-Liner on a turbofan engine show a great potential in order to improve the performance of traditional passive acoustic liners. / Ph. D.

Dysregulation of apoptosis during development is a possible mechanism for teratogen-induced birth defects. Neural tube defects (NTDs) are the second most common fetal malformations. Non-specific stimulation of maternal immune system prevents birth defects. This study investigated the role of dysregulated apoptosis in formation of NTDs from two teratogens: valproic acid (VA) and an unknown teratogen found in tap water. Interferon- γ (IFN γ) was used to stimulate maternal immunity to evaluate the role of altered apoptosis in this protective mechanism. Apoptosis was evaluated using flow cytometry, Terminal Transferase dUTP Nick End Labeling (TUNEL) assay and gene expression changes by RT2 Profiler PCR arrays. Additionally, changes in the expression of key signal transduction pathway genes that play a role in development were determined. Increased apoptosis, suggesting involvement in VA teratogenicity, was observed along the neural tube in both normal and abnormal embryos from VA-exposed dams. Increased apoptosis in normal VA-exposed embryos suggests that VA may alter other cellular processes such as cell proliferation and differentiation in addition to apoptosis. Apoptotic percentages in embryos with NTDs from IFNγ+VA dams were similar to controls, which indicated resistance to teratogen-induced apoptosis. In IFNγ+VA-exposed embryos with NTDs, immune stimulation failed to prevent apoptosis. VA initiated both death and survival signaling in the embryos; however, upregulation of the apoptotic genes and down regulation of anti-apoptotic genes of p53 and Bcl2 family tended to shift the balance towards death signaling. This change in gene expression patterns could result in increased apoptosis and NTDs in VA-exposed embryos. Immune stimulation normalized changes in the expression of pro-apoptotic signaling molecules. These results suggest immune stimulation protects embryos from teratogenicity of VA by preventing VA-induced apoptosis. VA altered the hedgehog, Wnt, retinoic acid and fibronectin signaling pathways in embryos with NTDs. These results suggest that VA also disrupted signaling pathways required for various morphogenic events during organogenesis. Immune stimulation normalized the expression of Fn1 and Hspb1 and thus may mediate protection through these signaling pathways. In tap water exposed embryos, no change in apoptotic pattern was observed by flow cytometry, TUNEL assay and RT-PCR. Also, none of the signal transduction pathway genes tested were significantly altered in tap water-exposed embryos. This suggests that apoptosis is not a mechanism for teratogenicity resulting from exposure to the contaminant in tap water. / Ph. D.

An innovative implementation of the Herschel-Quincke tubes concept for the reduction of noise from turbofan engines is proposed here. The approach consists of installing circumferential arrays of Herschel-Quincke (HQ) tubes or waveguides in the inlet of the turbofan engine. An analytical technique was developed to predict the effects of HQ tubes applied to circular inlets. The modeling technique involves modeling the tubes-inlet interfaces as finite piston sources that couple the acoustic field inside the inlet with the acoustic field within the HQ tubes. An optimization technique based on genetic algorithms was also developed to be able to design and optimize the system parameters. The accuracy of the model was validated with experimental data obtained from two types of turbofan engines. Analytical predictions are shown to correlate well with experimental data. The analytical model is then used to provide insight into the noise control mechanisms involved in the system. It is shown that the energy in an incident mode is in part reflected back to the fan and that some energy is also scattered into other higher-order modes. Thus, the suppression of a particular mode is due to the combination of the scattered contributions from the various incident modes. The effects of the system parameters were analyzed and parametric studies were conducted. Different configurations for the arrays of HQ tubes such as helical patterns or tubes at an angle with respect to the inlet axis were also investigated. The results show the great potential of the HQ tubes system to reduce noise from turbofan engines. / Master of Science

Corrosion of reinforcing steel embedded in concrete due to the presence of moisture, aggressive chemicals, inadequate cover, and other factors can lead to deterioration that substantially reduces the strength and serviceability of the affected structure. Accounting for corrosion degradation is critical for evaluation and assessment of the load carrying capacity of existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures. However, little is known about the relationship between high strain rate blast loading and the degradation effects that govern corrosion damaged structures such as concrete cover cracking, reduction in reinforcement areas, and deterioration of bond between concrete and steel. Ten identical RC beams were constructed and tested, half under blast loading conditions produced using the Virginia Tech Shock Tube Research Facility and the other half under quasi-static loading. The blast tests were conducted to investigate how increasing blast pressure and impulse affect the global displacement response and damage modes of beams subjected to blast loads. The quasi-static tests were performed to establish fundamental data on the load-deflection characteristics of corroded RC beams. One beam from each testing group served as a control specimen and was not corroded while the remaining beams were subjected to varying levels of corrosion (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) of the longitudinal reinforcement along the midspan region. The specimens were corroded using an accelerated corrosion technique in a tank of 3% sodium chloride solution and a constant electrical current, creating a controlled environment for varying levels of corrosion. An analytical model was also created using a single degree of freedom (SDOF) approach which predicted the performance of corroded RC beams under blast loading. The results of the quasi-static tests revealed that as corrosion levels increased, the load to cause yielding decreased, the yield displacements decreased, and failure occurred earlier for all specimens. This was accompanied by increased damage to the concrete cover and the addition of longitudinal corrosion induced cracking. For the blast loaded specimens, the results demonstrated that the maximum displacements and residual displacements increased beyond the expected response limits for corrosion levels greater than 5%, but at corrosion levels less than 5% there was no significant change in displacements. Damage levels increased by one or more categories with the introduction of even small levels of corrosion of less than 5%. At corrosion levels greater than 5%, before loading was applied, the specimens exhibited moderate damage due to the introduction of corrosion induced cracking. After loading, the specimens sustained hazardous damage at progressively lower blast volumes. The failure mode changed from ductile to sudden and brittle failure at corrosion levels greater than 5% but remained ductile with flexural failures at low corrosion levels below 5%. The experimental results could be predicted with a high level of accuracy using the SDOF approach, provided that the degraded strength of corroded concrete cover, degraded mechanical properties of corroded steel, length of the corroded region, and determination of either uniform or pitting corrosion are accounted for. Overall, the introduction of corrosion to an RC beam subjected to blast loading resulted in decreased strength and ductility across all specimens but with most disastrous effects occurring at corrosion levels of 5% or greater. A recommendation is made to adjust the response limits in ASCE/SEI 59 to account for corrosion in RC beams. / Master of Science / The threat of blast loads, resulting from either terrorist attacks or accidental explosions, poses a significant threat to the structural integrity of buildings, life safety of occupants, and the functionality of the structure. Corrosion of reinforcing steel embedded in concrete, due to the presence of moisture, aggressive chemicals, and other factors, can lead to deterioration that substantially weakens the affected structure. Accounting for corrosion degradation is critical for evaluation and assessment of the strength of existing reinforced concrete structures. However, little is known about the effects of blast loading on the adverse nature that governs corrosion damaged structures. Ten identical reinforced concrete beams were constructed and tested, half under blast loading and the other half under quasi-static loading. The blast loaded beams were subjected to a series of increasing blast volumes until failure was reached. Five identical beams were tested under quasi-static loading to provide a baseline comparison against the blast loaded beams. One beam from each testing group served as a control specimen and was not corroded while the remaining beams were subjected to varying levels of corrosion of the steel reinforcement. An analytical model was also created to predict the performance of corroded reinforced concrete beams under blast loading. The results of the study showed that as corrosion levels increased, the displacements increased beyond the expected response limits. Damage levels became increasingly more severe with the introduction of corrosion at all levels. The behavior changed from ductile to brittle at corrosion levels greater than 5% but remained ductile with flexural failures at corrosion levels below 5%. Overall, the introduction of corrosion to a concrete beam subjected to blast loading resulted in decreased strength and ductility across all specimens but with most disastrous effects occurring at corrosion levels of 5% or greater. A recommendation is made to adjust the response the limits in the code to account for corrosion in reinforced concrete beams.

The insect respiratory system serves as a model for both robust microfluidic transport and mate- rial design. In the system, the convective flow of gas is driven through local deformations of the tracheal network, a phenomenon that is dependent on the unique structure and material properties of the tracheal tissue. To understand the underlying mechanics of this method of gas transport, we studied the microstructure and material properties of the primary thoracic tracheal tubes of the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana). We performed quasi-static uniaxial tests on the tissue which revealed a nonlinear stress-strain response even under small deformations. A detailed analysis of the tissue's microstructural arrangement using both light and electron mi- croscopy revealed the primary sources of reinforcement for the tissue as well as heterogeneity on the meso-scale that may contribute to the physiological function of the tracheae during respi- ration. Finally, a custom mechanical testing system was developed with which inflation-extension tests on the tracheae were used to gather data on the biaxial elastic response of the tissue over a wide range of physiologically relevant loading conditions. From information gathered about the material microstructure, a robust constitutive model was chosen to quantify the biaxial response of the tracheae. This model will provide a basis from which to simulate the behavior of tracheal net- works in future computational studies. This study gives the first description of the elastic response of the tracheae which is essential for understanding the mechanics of respiration in insects. Thus it brings us closer to the realization of novel bio-inspired microfluidic systems and materials that utilize mechanical principles from the insect respiratory system. / Ph. D.