Type I Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is a major health problem and a burden for affected young individuals, as well as for society. It is among the most prevalent paediatric disorders, affecting an estimated 1.7 per 100 children and adolescents. Given the complexity of diabetes treatment regimens, it is not surprising that children, adolescents, and their families often have difficulty adhering to these regimens. Studies have found that the overall adherence rate among children and adolescents with diabetes is about 50%. It has also been found that adherence to T1DM often tends to decrease when the adolescent begins to assume most of the responsibility for managing the disease and the parents‟ role starts to decline. However, literature indicates that adolescent patients‟ adherence is poor and an important strategy to improving their metabolic control is to increase self-care. The most common age of onset for T1DM is between 10-14 years. The adolescent population is highly neglected in current research on diabetes, because the focus tends to favour children and not adolescents. It is widely recognised that glycaemic control in adolescents is complex, challenging and dependent on interconnected relationships between numerous inputs at individual, family, community and health service levels. Optimal care of adolescents with diabetes has not been subjected to rigorous scientific studies, and research results related to optimal glycaemic control are conflicting. Development and continuous evaluation of best practices pertaining to diabetes mellitus remains one of the major objectives of diabetes care, possibly allowing a delay in and/or prevention of later complications. Research indicates that adolescence is the one age group where there has been no discernible improvement in health over the last 20 years. A great number of research studies on the subject of diabetes are done globally, but less literature, especially in the South African context, can be found that focuses on and explain the experiences of adolescents with T1DM with regard to their treatment adherence. This qualitative study explored the experiences of adolescents with T1DM. A purposive sample (n=7) of young adolescents between the ages of 13 and 15 willingly participated in the research study to explore and describe their experiences with managing their treatment regimen. In-depth interviews were conducted to collect rich descriptive data, followed by participants‟ verbal reflections once a week for the duration of a month. After the in-depth interviews and weekly reflections, the researcher held a focus group interview with all the participants. Transcribed data were analysed by means of thematic analysis from which themes and subthemes were derived. The participants expressed both positive and negative emotions associated with their diabetes; they experienced a lack of understanding by significant others because of a lack of knowledge, interest or support regarding their diabetes; they mentioned that they continually need age-appropriate support and parental involvement, even though they manage diabetes through their own processes; and lastly, participants struggled with a fear of friends‟ and peers‟ perceptions. From the findings it is clear that in order to cope, the adolescents need not only medical treatment and education about diabetes (T1DM), but emotional support, supervision and repeated reinforcement to achieve effective self-management. The basic suggestion is that diabetes care for children and young people should include routine assessment of the psychological and social pressures on the adolescent and the family so that strategies can be put in place to give support and education as needed and as appropriate. The researcher also recommends that school personnel must be educated about diabetes so that they can understand the changing medical and psychosocial needs of the adolescent and can help him/her to participate fully in all the available work, sport, and leisure activities. Models of legislation and training programmes for school staff specifically addressing the needs of children with diabetes in school have been developed in a number of countries such as Greece, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden, the UK and the USA. These programmes should be considered as an example to other countries. These best practices can serve as a foundation for national improvement. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Aim: A wealth of quantitative literature exists exploring the adjustment of children and young people with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. However, results are often confusing and contradictory, at least partly due to studies using different definitions and measures. Studies have been criticised for over relying on parental reports and failing to consider young people’s own perceptions. Furthermore, they have often conceptualised adjustment as an outcome, rather than exploring the process involved. Additionally, although peers are considered to play an important role in young people’s lives, their role in young people’s adjustment to living with diabetes has rarely been examined. To address this gap, this study attempted to gain a rich understanding of young people’s experiences of adjusting to life with diabetes and explore how they feel their peers have contributed to this process, with the hope of informing clinical practice and improving support to young people and their families. Method: A qualitative approach was chosen and six young females aged 12 – 15 with a diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes were interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to analyse the transcripts. Results: Five main themes emerged from participants’ accounts: Developing a balanced relationship with diabetes; the uncomfortable position of difference; grappling with the fall out of diabetes; making diabetes more bearable; and the role of parents and friends. The findings are discussed in relation to the relevant literature. Clinical implications, methodological limitations and directions for future research are presented. Conclusions: This study provided an insight into the complex and dynamic process of young people’s adjustment to life with Type 1 diabetes. It highlighted the challenges and struggles they faced as a result of their diagnosis and the different strategies they employed to manage these. It also emphasised the valuable role both parents and friends provide in supporting young people with their illness.

Introdução: Diabetes tipo 1A(DM1A) é uma doença causada pela destruição autoimune das células beta. Em adição aos linfócitos T helper 1(Th1) e Th2, um subtipo específico de células T helper recentemente descrito, Th17, caracterizado pela produção da interleucina 17(IL-17A), IL-17F e IL-22, está também envolvido na imunidade adaptativa e autoimunidade, incluindo DM1A. A IL-23 tem função fundamental na expansão e sobrevivência das células Th17. A mesma é composta por 2 subunidades: a p19-específica (IL-23A) e a p40. Variantes dos genes IL-23A e de seu receptor (IL-23R) ou o aumento das concentrações séricas da IL-23 estão associados a várias doenças autoimunes, mas seus efeitos no DM1A não estão definidos. Com o intuito de avaliar a importância da IL-23 na patogênese do DM1A, as variantes dos genes IL23A e IL23R foram analisadas. Metodologia: A região codificadora e os regiões intrônicas proximais do gene IL23A, incluindo a região 5 proximal foram sequenciadas. Duas variantes do gene IL23A (rs2066808 e rs11171806) e duas do gene IL-23R (rs11209026 e rs10889677) foram também genotipadas. A amostra contou com 370 pacientes com DM1A e 314 indivíduos controles saudáveis. As medidas das concentrações séricas da IL-23 e os autoanticorpos pancreáticos e extra-pancreáticos foram determinados. Resultados: Nós observamos somente uma das seis variantes da IL-23 descritas nos bancos de dados (rs11171806 G>A localizada no exon 3) e descrevemos uma nova variante no gene IL-23A, que consistiu na substituição da citosina por timina na posição c.-403 (C>T) na região 5 proximal deste gene (encontrada em heterozigose em apenas uma paciente com DM1A, do sexo feminino, com 28 anos ao diagnóstico).Os alelos G dessas duas variantes estiveram em forte desequilíbrio de ligação (D\' = -0,825 para controles, p<2,0X10-6 e D\' = -0,902, p<2,0X10-17 para pacientes). Em consequência, a análise dos haplótipos destas variantes foi realizada. O haplótipo GG foi mais frequente nos controles (16.7%) do que nos pacientes com DM1A (9.5%), conferindo proteção à doença (pc = 0,0009, OR = 0,53) . A presença do haplótipo GG diferiu de acordo com a etnia no conjunto de pacientes e controles, sendo menor naqueles de etnia caucasóide (18%) em relação aos outros grupos (39%); p<0.0001. Entretanto, o efeito protetor da haplótipo GG foi independente da etnia. As duas variantes do gene IL23R (rs10889677 e rs11209026) tinham frequência alélica e genotípica semelhante entre pacientes com DM1A e controles. Não foi observada diferença significante nas concentrações da IL-23 entre 135 pacientes com DM1A (5,65 ± 14,0 pg/mL) e 112 indivíduos controles (9,06 ± 23,7pg/mL) (p =0,18). , mesmo quando analisamos apenas o pacientes com duração do diabetes inferior a dois anos, nos quais a resposta imune contra as células beta ainda está presente, (4.65 ± 6.94 pg/mL e 9.07 ± 23.62 pg/mL, p = 0.076). Não foi encontrada associação entre as variantes do gene IL23A com a idade diagnóstica, presença do peptídeo C residual e auto-anticorpo anti-descarboxilase do ácido glutâmico em pacientes com diagnóstico recente de DM1A. Estas variantes também não influenciaram na freqüência dos auto anticorpos extrapancreáticos: anti-tireoglobulina, anti-peroxidase, anti-21 hidroxilase, fator anti-núcleo, fator reumatóide e anti-citoplasma de neutrófilos. Conclusões: O haplótipo GG das variantes do gene lL23A (rs11171806 e rs2066808) foi associado a proteção ao DM1A. As variantes do gene IL23R (rs11209026 e rs10889677) não foram associadas ao DM1A. As concentrações séricas da IL-23 foram semelhantes entre os grupos. / Introduction: Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) is a disorder caused by the immune-mediated destruction of insulin-secreting pancreatic beta cells. In addition to T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells, a recently discovered subset of T helper cells, Th17, characterized by the production of interleukin 17 A (IL-17A), IL-17F, and IL-22 is also involved in adaptive immunity and autoimmunity, including T1D. The Interleukin IL-23 has a central role in the expansion and survival of Th 17 cells. It is composed of two subunits: p19-specific (IL-23A) and p40. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of IL-23A and IL-23 receptor (IL-23R) genes or increased IL-23 serum concentrations were associated with several autoimmune diseases, but their role in T1D has not been defined. We therefore searched for variants of IL-23A and IL-23R genes that could predispose to T1D. Methods:The coding regions and boundary intron sequences of IL-23A gene, including the 5 proximal region were sequenced. Two variants (rs2066808 and rs 11171806) of IL-23A and two of IL-23R (rs11209026 and rs10889677) genes were also genotyped. IL-23 serum levels and pancreatic and extra-pancreatic auto-antibodies were also determined. The cohort involved 370 patients with T1D and 314 healthy control subjects.Results: We observed only 1 out of 6 IL-23A coding variants (rs11171806 G>A localized in exon 3) described in a database repository . A new allelic variant of the IL-23A gene, consisting of the substitution of a cytosine by a thymine at position c.-403 (C>T) in the 5 proximal region of the IL-23A gene (found in heterozygosis in only 1 female patient with T1D) was described. The G alleles of rs11171806 and rs2066808 variants of IL-23A gene were in strong linkage disequilibrium (D\' = -0,825 for controls, p<2,0X10-6 and D\' = -0,902, p<2,0X10-17 for patients). So, further analyses were performed with the haplotypes instead of separated SNPs. The GG haplotype was more frequent in controls (16,7%) than in T1D patients (9,5%), conferring a protection to the disease (pc= 0,0009, OR = 0.53). The presence of haplotype GG was also different according to the ethnic group in the overall sample (patients+controls), when we pooled the Caucasians (18%) against the other groups (39%); p<0.0001. However, the lower susceptibility to T1D conferred by GG haplotype was independent of the ethnic group. Two IL-23R gene variants (rs10889677 and rs11209026) were also analyzed. The allelic and genotypic frequency of the variants did not differ between patients with T1D and control subjects. No significant differences were observed between the plasma IL-23 concentrations of 135 T1D patients (5.65 ± 14.0) and 112 control subjects (9.06 ± 23.7) (p = 0.18), even when we only the patients with less than 2 years disease duration (n = 43), when the immune attack to beta cells is still present, were included (4.65 ± 6.94 pg/mL and 9.07 ± 23.62 pg/mL, p = 0.076). No association was found between IL-23A variants with age at diagnosis of diabetes, presence of residual C-peptide levels or frequency of glutamic acid anti-decarboxilase antibody in patients with recent-onset T1D. Furthermore, these variants were not related to the presence of the extrapancreatic autoantibodies such as thyroid peroxidase (TPO) Ab, thyroglobulin (TG) Ab, 21-Hydroxilase (21OH) Ab, Anti nuclear factor (ANA) Ab, rheumatoid factor (FR) Ab and Neutrophil cytoplasmic (ANCA) Ab. Conclusions : The GG haplotype of lL23A gene variants( rs11171806 and rs2066808) was protective against T1D. The IL23R variants (rs11209026 and rs10889677) were not associated with susceptibility toT1D . IL-23 serum concentrations did not differ between T1D patients and controls.

O diabetes melitus tipo 1 é caracterizado por hiperglicemia em decorrência da ausência de secreção de insulina, causada pela destruição de células beta do pâncreas, geralmente por alteração auto-imune. O objetivo deste estudo foi o de conhecer o perfil do paciente diabético tipo 1 em atendimento no CAPE FOUSP, relacionando as complicações as alterações sistêmicas e bucais do diabetes nestes pacientes. Foram coletados dados demográficos, dados da história médica [idade ao diagnóstico, histórico de crise de cetoacidose, hipoglicêmica e hiperglicêmica, maior e menor glicemia já registradas, presença de microangiopatias (retinopatia, doença renal, neuropatia) e macroangiopatias (doença cardiovascular, hipertensão arterial sistêmica), outras doenças sistêmicas, medicação em uso], realizado exame físico extra oral, com aferição da pressão arterial, exame físico intra-oral [para pesquisa de xerostomia, candidíase (pseudomembranosa, eritematosa, leucoplásica, queilite angular), GUNA úlcera aftosa recorrente, herpes simples, síndrome da boca ardente], índice CPOD, índice periodontal comunitário (ICP), índice gengival (IG), presença de cálculo, índice de placa, índice de maloclusão], exames complementares (avaliação do fluxo salivar, aferição da glicemia capilar e teste rápido de hemoglobina glicada) e o preenchimento do questionário Oral health impact profile (OHIP-14). Foram avaliados 26 pacientes, 11 do sexo masculino e 15 do sexo feminino, sendo que a média de idade do diagnóstico variou de 06 meses a 26 anos de idade, o tempo decorrente desde o diagnóstico variou de 1 a 37 anos, 61,53% dos pacientes apresentavam alguma microangiopatia e 27% dos pacientes alguma macroangiopatia. A manifestação bucal mais encontrada foi a xerostomia (61,53%), seguida da queilite angular (23,07%), a média do CPOD foi de 13,26, 50% dos pacientes apresentavam ICP escore 2 e os outros 50% apresentavam escore 3 e 4, 84,61% apresentavam gengivite moderada e a média do IP foi de 2,19. A maloclusão leve foi encontrada em 69% dos pacientes e 92,30% dos pacientes apresentavam fluxo salivar normal, 16 pacientes estavam com hiperglicemia, 23 pacientes apresentavam hemoglobina glicada descompensada e 58% dos pacientes apresentaram um impacto fraco de saúde bucal na qualidade de vida Concluímos que nossos pacientes com DM1 são jovens, com da glicemia e DM descompensados, apresentam a doença há mais de 10 anos, e desenvolveram microangiopatias e macroangiopatias como a doença renal e a hipertensão arterial. Apresentam poucas manifestações bucais, sendo a mais comum a xerostomia; e uma condição bucal satisfatória, em decorrência do acesso ao tratamento odontológico, independentemente da compensação da glicemia. / Diabetes mellitus type 1 is characterized by hyperglycemia due to the absence of insulin secretion caused by destruction of pancreatic beta cells, usually by autoimmune disease. The aim of this study was to establish the profile of the type 1 diabetic patients treated at CAPE FOUSP recognizing the systemic and oral complications of diabetes in these patients. We collected demographic data, medical history [age at diagnosis, history of ketoacidosis, hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic crisis, highest and lowest glycemia recorded, presence of microangiopathy (retinopathy, kidney disease, neuropathy) and macroangiopathy (cardiovascular disease, arterial hypertension), other systemic diseases, drugs in use], and performed blood pressure measurement, and extra and intra oral physical examination [searching for xerostomia, candidiasis (pseudomembranous, erythematous, leucoplakia, angular cheilitis), GUNA, aphthous ulcer, herpes simplex, burning mouth syndrome], DMFT index, community periodontal index (ICP), gingival index (GI), presence of calculus, plaque index, index of malocclusion], complementary tests (measurement of salivary flow and glycemia and a rapid test for glycated hemoglobin) and completing the questionnaire \" Oral health impact profile\" (OHIP - 14). We evaluated 26 patients, 11 males and 15 females, with age of diagnosis from 06 months to 26 years, time elapsed since diagnosis ranged from 1 to 37 years, 61.53 % presented with some microangiopathy and 27 % with macroangiopathy. The most frequent oral manifestation was xerostomia (61.53 %), followed by angular cheilitis (23.07%), the mean DMFT was 13.26, 50 % of patients had ICP score 2 and 50 % had score 3 and 4, 84.61% had moderate gingivitis and mean PI was 2.19. The slight malocclusion was found in 69 % of patients and 92.30 % of patients had normal salivary flow, 16 patients had hyperglycemia, 23 patients had glycated hemoglobin decompensated and 58 % of patients had a weak impact of oral health on quality of life. We conclude that our DM1 patients are young, with blood glucose and DM decompensated with diabetes for over 10 years, and developed microangiopathy and macroangiopathy like kidney disease and hypertension. Few patients have oral manifestations, and the most common is xerostomia, and a satisfactory oral health as a result of access to dental treatment, regardless of the rates of blood glucose.

O diabetes melitus tipo 1 é caracterizado por hiperglicemia em decorrência da ausência de secreção de insulina, causada pela destruição de células beta do pâncreas, geralmente por alteração auto-imune. O objetivo deste estudo foi o de conhecer o perfil do paciente diabético tipo 1 em atendimento no CAPE FOUSP, relacionando as complicações as alterações sistêmicas e bucais do diabetes nestes pacientes. Foram coletados dados demográficos, dados da história médica [idade ao diagnóstico, histórico de crise de cetoacidose, hipoglicêmica e hiperglicêmica, maior e menor glicemia já registradas, presença de microangiopatias (retinopatia, doença renal, neuropatia) e macroangiopatias (doença cardiovascular, hipertensão arterial sistêmica), outras doenças sistêmicas, medicação em uso], realizado exame físico extra oral, com aferição da pressão arterial, exame físico intra-oral [para pesquisa de xerostomia, candidíase (pseudomembranosa, eritematosa, leucoplásica, queilite angular), GUNA úlcera aftosa recorrente, herpes simples, síndrome da boca ardente], índice CPOD, índice periodontal comunitário (ICP), índice gengival (IG), presença de cálculo, índice de placa, índice de maloclusão], exames complementares (avaliação do fluxo salivar, aferição da glicemia capilar e teste rápido de hemoglobina glicada) e o preenchimento do questionário Oral health impact profile (OHIP-14). Foram avaliados 26 pacientes, 11 do sexo masculino e 15 do sexo feminino, sendo que a média de idade do diagnóstico variou de 06 meses a 26 anos de idade, o tempo decorrente desde o diagnóstico variou de 1 a 37 anos, 61,53% dos pacientes apresentavam alguma microangiopatia e 27% dos pacientes alguma macroangiopatia. A manifestação bucal mais encontrada foi a xerostomia (61,53%), seguida da queilite angular (23,07%), a média do CPOD foi de 13,26, 50% dos pacientes apresentavam ICP escore 2 e os outros 50% apresentavam escore 3 e 4, 84,61% apresentavam gengivite moderada e a média do IP foi de 2,19. A maloclusão leve foi encontrada em 69% dos pacientes e 92,30% dos pacientes apresentavam fluxo salivar normal, 16 pacientes estavam com hiperglicemia, 23 pacientes apresentavam hemoglobina glicada descompensada e 58% dos pacientes apresentaram um impacto fraco de saúde bucal na qualidade de vida Concluímos que nossos pacientes com DM1 são jovens, com da glicemia e DM descompensados, apresentam a doença há mais de 10 anos, e desenvolveram microangiopatias e macroangiopatias como a doença renal e a hipertensão arterial. Apresentam poucas manifestações bucais, sendo a mais comum a xerostomia; e uma condição bucal satisfatória, em decorrência do acesso ao tratamento odontológico, independentemente da compensação da glicemia. / Diabetes mellitus type 1 is characterized by hyperglycemia due to the absence of insulin secretion caused by destruction of pancreatic beta cells, usually by autoimmune disease. The aim of this study was to establish the profile of the type 1 diabetic patients treated at CAPE FOUSP recognizing the systemic and oral complications of diabetes in these patients. We collected demographic data, medical history [age at diagnosis, history of ketoacidosis, hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic crisis, highest and lowest glycemia recorded, presence of microangiopathy (retinopathy, kidney disease, neuropathy) and macroangiopathy (cardiovascular disease, arterial hypertension), other systemic diseases, drugs in use], and performed blood pressure measurement, and extra and intra oral physical examination [searching for xerostomia, candidiasis (pseudomembranous, erythematous, leucoplakia, angular cheilitis), GUNA, aphthous ulcer, herpes simplex, burning mouth syndrome], DMFT index, community periodontal index (ICP), gingival index (GI), presence of calculus, plaque index, index of malocclusion], complementary tests (measurement of salivary flow and glycemia and a rapid test for glycated hemoglobin) and completing the questionnaire \" Oral health impact profile\" (OHIP - 14). We evaluated 26 patients, 11 males and 15 females, with age of diagnosis from 06 months to 26 years, time elapsed since diagnosis ranged from 1 to 37 years, 61.53 % presented with some microangiopathy and 27 % with macroangiopathy. The most frequent oral manifestation was xerostomia (61.53 %), followed by angular cheilitis (23.07%), the mean DMFT was 13.26, 50 % of patients had ICP score 2 and 50 % had score 3 and 4, 84.61% had moderate gingivitis and mean PI was 2.19. The slight malocclusion was found in 69 % of patients and 92.30 % of patients had normal salivary flow, 16 patients had hyperglycemia, 23 patients had glycated hemoglobin decompensated and 58 % of patients had a weak impact of oral health on quality of life. We conclude that our DM1 patients are young, with blood glucose and DM decompensated with diabetes for over 10 years, and developed microangiopathy and macroangiopathy like kidney disease and hypertension. Few patients have oral manifestations, and the most common is xerostomia, and a satisfactory oral health as a result of access to dental treatment, regardless of the rates of blood glucose.

O adequado manejo do DM Tipo 1 tem se tornado um desafio, principalmente para as próprias crianças, em virtude da presença de comportamentos, habilidades e conhecimentos inadequados que colaboram para a não adesão ao tratamento e para aumento de complicações em longo prazo. Estudos têm demonstrado que compreender as experiências de vida das crianças nos seus diversos espaços, valorizando-as e buscando maior aproximação com as mesmas, pode contribuir para a partilha do conhecimento sobre o manejo do diabetes e para o maior envolvimento da criança no cuidado. O objetivo deste trabalho foi compreender, na perspectiva de crianças com DM Tipo 1, os fatores que interferem no manejo da doença. Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa, de natureza exploratória. Participaram do estudo 19 crianças. Utilizamos a entrevista semiestruturada e, como recurso facilitador da comunicação com a criança, os fantoches. Esses brinquedos foram confeccionados pelas próprias crianças e criou-se, também, um cenário que ilustrou e complementou a utilização dos fantoches no dia da entrevista. A análise dos dados empíricos foi feita por meio da análise de conteúdo. Os resultados evidenciaram a compreensão do que é ser criança com diabetes e dos fatores relacionados à sua existência, como seus sentimentos e percepções. A compreensão da interação da criança com os conhecimentos que possui sobre a sua doença, sua inserção no processo do autocuidado, as habilidades desenvolvidas e os recursos disponíveis para lidar com as demandas da doença constituem fatores que interferem de forma positiva ou negativa no manejo da doença e merecem ser foco de atenção dos profissionais de saúde. Todos esses elementos atuam dinamicamente nos espaços do cotidiano da criança, tais como o familiar, o escolar, o de amizades, o de lazer e o dos serviços de saúde, atuando como fatores que fragilizam ou potencializam o manejo da doença. O apoio de familiares, amigos, professores e profissionais de saúde que compartilham as experiências de ser uma criança com diabetes mostrou-se essencial para o alcance do adequado manejo. Além disso, o conhecimento adquirido por estes atores e pela própria criança interfere diretamente no manejo do DM Tipo 1. Os resultados deste estudo evidenciam ações que visam a fortalecer o trabalho da equipe multidisciplinar no cuidado da criança com diabetes e apontam cenários de atuação que podem ser incrementados pelos profissionais de saúde. O enfermeiro ocupa posição privilegiada para identificar e operacionalizar ações apropriadas ao estágio de desenvolvimento da criança e às suas necessidades, em todos os espaços em que vive, atuando, assim, em consonância com todos os envolvidos em prol do sucesso do manejo da doença. / The adequate handling of Type 1 DM has become a challenge, mainly for the children themselves, due to the presence of inadequate behaviors, skills and knowledge that contribute to non-adherence to treatment and increased complications in the long term. Research has demonstrated that understanding children\'s life experiences in their different spaces, valuing them and seeking greater approximation, can contribute to knowledge sharing on diabetes management and to the children\'s greater involvement in care. This research aimed to understand, from the perspective of children with Type 1 DM, the factors that interfere in the management of this disease. This is a qualitative and exploratory research. Study participants were 19 children. Semi-structured interviews were used and, to facilitate communication with the child, puppets, which the children made themselves. A scenario was also created to illustrate and complement the use of puppets on the day of the interview. Content analysis was used for empirical data analysis. Results evidenced the understanding of what it means to be a child with diabetes and the factors related to his/her existence, such as feelings and perceptions. Understanding of these children\'s interaction with their knowledge about their disease, their insertion in the self-care process, developed skills and resources available to deal with the demands of the disease constitute factors that interfere positively or negatively in disease management and deserve further attention from health professionals. All of these elements act dynamically in the child\'s daily spaces, such as the family, school, friendships, leisure and health services, as factors that weaken or strengthen disease management. Support from relatives, friends, teachers and health professionals who share the experiences of being a child with diabetes showed to be essential to achieve adequate management. Moreover, the knowledge these actors and the children themselves acquire interferes directly in Type 1 DM management. These study results evidence actions aimed at strengthening the work of the multidisciplinary team in care delivery to children with diabetes and indicate activity scenarios which health professionals can build upon. Nurses play a privileged role to identify and put in practice actions that are appropriate for the children\'s development stage and needs, in all spaces they live in. Thus, they act in line with all parties involved with a view to successful disease management.

Syftet med denna litteraturstudie var att beskriva hur föräldrar till barn med diabetes mellitus typ 1 upplever och hanterar sin vardag samt hur de upplever stöd och information från sjukvården. Den design som användes var beskrivande litteraturstudie. De databaser som användes var Cinahl och PubMed och resultatet formades från 15 vetenskapliga artiklar. Det resultat som framkom var att i samband med barnets insjuknande upplevde föräldrar bland annat kaos, ångest, sorg och chock. Föräldrarna fick ta ett stort ansvar över sjukdomen och de använde olika copingstrategier för att kunna hantera detta. Oron för att barnet skulle drabbas av hypoglykemi var stor hos många föräldrar och många var också oroliga över att låta barnet ta ansvar över sin sjukdom. Att kunna få stöd från sjukvården tyckte många föräldrar var viktigt, de sökte också information på andra sätt exempelvis genom föräldragrupper. De 15 vetenskapliga artiklarna kvalitetgranskades, analyserades och sammanställdes. Den slutsats som framkom var att livet förändrades på många olika sätt efter att barnet fått sin diagnos. Detta krävde stort engagemang från föräldrarna då hela familjens liv påverkades. / The purpose of this study was to describe how parents of children with type 1 diabetes mellitus experienced and coped with their everyday lives and how they experienced support and information from health care. The used design was descriptive literature study. The databases used were Cinahl and PubMed and the result was formed from 15 scientific articles. The results that emerged were that in connection with the child got sick the parents experienced including chaos, anxiety, grief and shock. The parents had to take a major responsibility of the disease and used different coping strategies to deal with it. Concern that the child would suffer from hypoglycemia was high among many parents and many were also concerned about letting the child take responsibility over their illness. Many parents found it important to be eligible support from health care professionals, they also examined the information in other ways such as parent groups. The 15 scientific articles quality were examined analyzed and summarized. The conclusion that emerged was that life changed in many different ways after the child received his diagnosis. This required considerable commitment from the parents when the entire family´s lifes were affected.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri--Columbia, 2003. / "December 2003." Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 146-172). Also issued on the Internet.

This thesis contributes to the research area of causal inference, where estimation of the effect of a treatment on an outcome of interest is the main objective. Some aspects of the estimation of average causal effects in observational studies in general, and case-control studies in particular, are explored. An important part of estimating causal effects in an observational study is to control for covariates. The first paper of this thesis concerns the selection of minimal covariate sets sufficient for unconfoundedness of the treatment assignment. A data-driven implementation of two covariate selection algorithms is proposed and evaluated. A common sampling scheme in epidemiology, and when investigating rare events, is the case-control design. In the second paper we study estimators of the marginal causal odds ratio in matched and independent case-control designs. Estimators that, under a logistic regression model, utilize information about the known prevalence of being a case is examined and compared through simulations. The third paper investigates the particular situation where case-control sampled data is reused to estimate the effect of the case-defining event on an outcome of interest. The consequence of ignoring the design when estimating the average causal effect is discussed and a design-weighted matching estimator is proposed. The performance of the estimator is evaluated with simulation experiments, when matching on the covariates directly and when matching on the propensity score. The last paper studies the effect of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) on school achievements using data from the Swedish Childhood Diabetes Register, a population-based incidence register. We apply theoretical results from the second and third papers in the estimation of the average causal effect within the T1DM population. A matching estimator that accounts for the matched case-control design is used.

Adolescensutvecklingen är en känslig period, då övergången från att vara ett beroende barn till att bli en självständig vuxen skall äga rum. Under denna kritiska process sker identitetsutveckling och strävan efter att vara oberoende föräldrar ökar. År 2013 rapporterades att cirka 50000 personer i Sverige har typ 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) och statistik pekar på en ständig ökning av sjukdomen. T1DM är en ämnesomsättningssjukdom som kännetecknas av brist på hormonet insulin. Sjukdomen behandlas med insulin, kost och motion och kräver dessutom regelbundenhet och daglig egenvård. Syftet med studien var att identifiera hälsorelaterade utmaningar med T1DM under adolescensutvecklingen, ur ett personperspektiv. Studien är utförd som en litteraturstudie där 13 vetenskapliga artiklar har granskats och bearbetats. Resultatet visar att T1DM under adolescensutvecklingen medför speciella utmaningar och problematik kring föräldrarelationen, vikten av kunskap och stöd samt behovet av att vara som alla andra. Vidare forskning bör fokusera på föräldrars samt hälso- och sjukvårdspersonals perspektiv kring T1DM under adolescensutvecklingen, för att få ett helhetsperspektiv och kunna stödja den drabbade ungdomen på bästa sätt. / The adolescence is a sensitive period with the transition from being a dependent child to becoming an independent adult. During this critical process ones identity develops and the desire to be self-sustaining without parents increases. In 2013 it was reported that approximately 50 000 people in Sweden have type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and statistics point to a steady increase of the disease. T1DM is a metabolic disease characterized by a lack of the hormone insulin. The disease is treated with insulin, diet and exercise and also requires regularity and daily self-care. The purpose of this study was to identify health related challenges with T1DM during the period of adolescence, from a person perspective. This is a literature study in which 13 scientific articles have been reviewed and processed. The result shows that T1DM during the period of adolescence poses special challenges and problems relating to the parental relationship, the importance of knowledge and support, and the need to be like everyone else. Further research should focus on the perspectives of both parents and healthcare staff on T1DM during adolescence, to get an overall perspective and be able to assist the affected youth in the best possible way.