The ability of cell-penetrating peptides to cross plasma membranes has been explored for various applications, including the delivery of bioactive molecules to inhibit disease-causing cellular processes. The uptake mechanisms by which cell-penetrating peptides enter cells depend on the conditions, such as the cell line the concentration and the temperature. To be used as therapeutics, each novel cell-penetrating peptide needs to be fully characterized, including their physicochemical properties, their biological activity and their uptake mechanism. Our group has developed a series of highly performing, non-toxic cell-penetrating peptides, all derived from the original sequence of transportan 10. These analogs are called PepFects and NickFects and they are now a diverse family of N-terminally stearylated peptides. These peptides are known to form noncovalent, nano-sized complexes with diverse oligonucleotide cargoes. One bottleneck that limits the use of this technology for gene therapy applications is the efficient release of the internalized complexes from endosomal vesicles. The general purpose of this thesis is to reveal the mechanisms by which our in house designed peptides enter cells and allow the successful transport of biofunctional oligonucleotide cargo. To reach this goal, we used both biophysical and cell biology methods. We used spectroscopy methods, including fluorescence, circular dichroism and dynamic light scattering to reveal the physicochemical properties. Using confocal and transmission electron microscopy we observed and tracked the internalization and intracellular trafficking. Additionally we tested the biological activity in vitro and the cellular toxicity of the delivery systems. We conclude that the transport vectors involved in this study are efficient at perturbing lipid membranes, which correlates with their remarkable capacity to transport oligonucleotides into cells. The improved and distinct capacities to escape from endosomal vesicles can be the result of their different structures and hydrophobicity. These findings extend the knowledge of the variables that condition intracellular Cell-penetrating peptide mediated transport of nucleic acids, which ultimately translates into a small step towards successful non-viral gene therapy.

Immunotoxins (ITx) represent a new, alternate class of therapeutic agent. ITx is made when the active part of a toxin is conjugated with the binding portion of an antibody that recognizes a cancer-specific antigen. The antibody component makes ITx highly specific, as it will only bind to cells displaying the correct surface antigen. This characteristic lowers the chance of nonspecific cell damage, which causes many of the severe side effects of other chemotherapeutics. The ITx we use is a conjugate of saporin toxin. Saporin is a ribosomal inhibiting protein derived from the plant Saponaria officinales, which kills the cell by inhibiting protein synthesis. ITx enters the cancer cell by binding to the cellular marker it is specific for on the cell surface. From there, it is endocytosed, compartmentalized in an endosome, and eventually escapes to the cytosol where its ribosomal target is located. Increasing the rate of escape to the cytosol is the key to increasing cell death. The mechanism by which saporin escapes the endosome and enters the cytosol is poorly understood. Two potential mechanisms involving the rupture of the endocytic vesicle were examined. Through experiments using large unilamellar vesicles as endosomal mimics, we have been able to characterize the mechanism by which saporin works to burst the endosomal membrane through RET and calcein release. Understanding this process is the key to producing more effective immunotoxin sensitizing drugs.

Regulation of the actin cytoskeleton is key to cellular function and underlies processes including cell migration, mitosis and endocytosis. Motile cells send out dynamic actin protrusions that enable them to sense and interact with their environment, as well as generating physical forces. Linking of the actin cytoskeleton to the cell membrane is essential for the formation of these protrusions. The proteins that are thought to fulfil such a role have a membrane interacting domain (such as the PH domain in lamellipodin, or I-BAR protein in IRSp53) and a domain which interacts with actin regulatory proteins (such as the SH3 domain of IRSp53, which binds Ena and VASP). I investigated the contribution of the F-BAR protein Toca-1 in linking actin polymerisation to membranes, by characterising a new protein-protein interaction and the interaction of Toca-1 with giant unilamellar vesicles. FBP17, a homologue of Toca-1, can oligomerise to form 2D flat lattices and 3D tubules on membranes. Proteins of the Toca-1 family have previously been implicated in actin polymerisation in cell-free systems and during endocytosis. However, there is emerging evidence that Toca-1 family proteins could also be involved in the formation of outward facing protrusions, lamellipodia and filopodia. In an in vitro system that recapitulates the formation of filopodia-like structures (FLS) on supported lipid bilayers, Toca-1 is recruited early, suggesting a Toca-1 scaffolding mechanism could precede the recruitment of other actin regulators. One prediction of this model is that Toca-1 would bind proteins previously implicated in filopodia formation, such as formins. I found that extracts depleted of Toca-1 binding partners no longer forms filopodia-like structures and subsequently optimised pull-down assays to identify Toca-1 binding partners by mass-spectrometry. I identified four formins, Diaph1, Diaph3, FHOD1 and INF2, and as well as the actin elongation factors and filopodia proteins, Ena and VASP. I further characterised these interactions and found that Toca-1 binds Ena and VASP via its SH3 domain. The interaction is direct and is strongly reduced if the proline-rich region in Ena is deleted. VASP was still able to bind without its proline rich region, suggesting there could be additional binding sites. I discovered that the binding of Ena and VASP was dependent on the clustering state of Toca-1, whilst the binding of the previously identified Toca-1 binding partner N-WASP was not. This further supports the importance of Toca-1 oligomerisation in actin polymerisation. I tested these interactions in the FLS system and found that increasing Toca-1 concentration leads to increased recruitment of N-WASP, as well as the novel binding partner Ena to the structures, whereas an increase in VASP was not observed. SH3-domain mediated interactions are required for Toca-1 recruitment to FLS, suggesting that its membrane and protein binding activities act cooperatively. I showed that unlike N-WASP, which promotes the formation of branched actin, Ena and VASP are not required for actin polymerisation on supported lipid bilayers, suggesting that they are redundant with other factors in the elongation step of FLS formation. Ena and VASP are known to be important for the formation of neuronal filopodia and so I began to further test the role of these interactions in a cellular context using a neuronal cell culture system. As well as recruiting protein binding partners, F-BAR family proteins are implicated in stabilising lipid microdomains and can induce the clustering of phosphoinositides. I investigated the role of Toca-1 in actin polymerisation on PI(4,5)P2-rich giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs). Actin-rich tails formed on the GUVs only when excess Toca-1 was supplemented into the extracts, and I propose that this is due to lipid organisation by Toca-1. In summary, my work suggests a model in which Toca-1 clusters, stabilises the membrane lipids and recruits regulators of actin polymerisation, such as Ena. This mechanism could be used to link actin polymerisation to the membrane in cellular protrusions, such as filopodia.

My thesis concerns spectroscopic studies (NMR, CD and fluorescence) of peptides with functions in biotechnology and biology, and their interactions with a model membrane (large unilamellar phospholipid vesicles). The resorufin-based arsenical hairpin binder (ReAsH) bound to a short peptide is a useful fluorescent tag for genetic labeling of proteins in living cells. A hairpin structure with some resemblance to type II β-turn was determined by NMR structure calculations (Paper I). Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short (30-35 residues), often rich in basic amino acids such as Arg. They can pass through the cell membrane and deliver bioactive cargoes, making them useful for biotechnical and pharmacological applications. The mechanisms of cellular uptake and membrane translocation are under debate. Understanding the mechanistic aspects of CPPs is the major focus of Papers II, III, and IV. The effect of the pyrenebutyrate (PB) on the cellular uptake, membrane translocation and perturbation of several CPPs from different subgroups was investigated (Paper II). We concluded that both charge and hydrophobicity of the CPP affect the cellular uptake and membrane translocation efficiency. Endosomal escape is a crucial challenge for the CPP applications. We modeled the endosome and endosomal escape for different CPPs to investigate the corresponding molecular mechanisms (Papers III and IV). Hydrophobic CPPs were able to translocate across the model membrane in the presence of a pH gradient, produced by bacteriorhodopsin proton pumping, whereas a smaller effect was observed for hydrophilic CPPs. Dynorphin A (Dyn A) peptide mutations are associated with neurodegenerative disorders, without involvement of the opioid receptors. The non-opioid activities of Dyn A may involve membrane perturbations. Model membrane-perturbations by three Dyn A mutants were investigated (Paper V). The results showed effects to different degrees largely in accordance with their neurotoxic effects. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Neste trabalho investigamos efeitos de fotoirradiação e toxinas sob membranas celulares miméticas. Foram utilizadas, como modelo de membranas lipídicas, vesiculas unilamelares gigantes (GUVs) compostas pro lipídeos oxidados e não oxidados observadas por microscopia ótica de contraste de fase. Inicialmente estudamos a foto-resposta de membranas compostas por POPC e POPG dispersas em solução contendo azul de metileno (MB). Na sequência, estudamos o efeito de toxinas formadoras de poros, Esticolisina I (ST I) e Esticolisina II (ST II), em membranas contendo lipídeos oxidados e não oxidados. Os resultados de MB (10 µM) disperso em solução de membranas compostas por POPC e o lipídeo aniônico POPG indicaram que o aumento da densidade de carga negativa nas membranas das GUVs, que favorece a ligação da moléculas positivamente carregadas como MB nas membranas, tem como consequência um aumento de permeabilidade da membrana muito mais rápído em relação a membranas compostas apenas por POPC. Isto se deve ao fato que a localização preferencial do MB na membrana de POPC:POPG favorece a formação de oxigênio singlete próximo a dupla ligação da cadeia alquílica, dando início a reação de peroxidação lipídica de maneira mais efetiva que em membrana de POPC. Os resultados da ação das toxinas STI e STII (21 nM) em GUVs contendo lipídeos não oxidados PC e esfingomielina evidenciam que apenas STII é capaz de permear estas membranas a esta concentração. Mais ainda, nossos resultados sugerem que a existência de separação de fases fluida-gel na bicamada lipidica composta por PC:SM (razão molar 1:1) favorece a ação da toxina StII. Ao analisarmos membranas contendo lipídeos hidroperoxidados (POPC-OOH) dispersas em solução contendo STII (21 nM) observamos um aumento de permeabilidade na membrana num conjunto de GUVs, associado a formação de poros, apenas em bicamadas lipídicas formadas por misturas de lipídeos oxidados (POPC) e não oxidados (POPC-OOH). Quanto maior a concentração de lipídeos oxidados na membrana mais rapidamente ocorre o aumento de permeabilidade. / In this work we investigate the effects of photoirradiation and toxins on mimetic cell membranes. As a model of lipid membranes, giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of oxidized and oxidized pro-lipids were observed by optical phase contrast microscopy. Initially we studied the photo-response of membranes composed of POPC and POPG dispersed in solution containing methylene blue (MB). Following, we studied the effect of pore-forming toxins, Sticolysin I (ST I) and Sticolysin II (ST II), on membranes containing oxidized and non-oxidized lipids. The results of MB (10 M) dispersed in solution of membranes composed of POPC and the anionic lipid POPG indicated that the increase in the negative charge density in the membranes of GUVs, which favors the binding of positively charged molecules as MB in the membranes, consequently increases membrane permeability in regard to membranes composed only of POPC. This is due to the fact that the preferred location of the MB in the POPC: POPG membrane favors the formation of singlet oxygen near the double bond of the alkyl chain, initiating the lipid peroxidation reaction more effectively than in the POPC membrane. The results of the action of the STI and STII toxins (21 nM) on GUVs containing non oxidised lipids PC and sphingomyelin show that only STII is able to permeate these membranes at this concentration. Moreover, our results suggest that the existence of fluid-gel phase separation in the lipid bilayer composed of PC:SM (molar ratio 1:1) favors the action of the StII toxin. When analyzing membranes containing hydroperoxidized lipids (POPC-OOH) dispersed in solution containing STII (21 nM) we observed an increase in membrane permeability in a set of GUVs, associated with pore formation, only in lipid bilayers formed by mixtures of oxidized lipids (POPC-OOH) and non-oxidized ones. The higher the concentration of oxidized lipids in the membrane, the faster the permeability increases.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein neuer Ansatz vorgestellt, um Lipiddomänen, die Bindungsorte peripherer und integraler Membranproteine darstellen können, zu charakterisieren. Insbesondere wurde die Analyse der Fluoreszenzlebenszeiten von NBD-markierten Lipidanaloga benutzt, um Lipiddomänen in Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUV) und darauf aufbauend, in der Plasmamembran von Säugerzellen zu untersuchen. Das typische Zeitfenster von Fluoreszenzlebenszeiten im Bereich von Nanosekunden ermöglicht es, auch sehr kurzlebige Lipiddomänen nachzuweisen. Mit Hilfe des Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) wurden für die liquid disordered (ld) und liquid ordered (lo) Domänen in GUV jeweils spezifische Werte für das Abklingen der Fluoreszenz gemessen. Sogar die Existenz von submikroskopischen Domänen in GUV konnte nachgewiesen werden. Die Fluoreszenzlebenszeit des Lipidanalogs C6-NBD-PC zeigte in der Plasmamembran von Säugerzellen eine breite Verteilung. Dies legt in Übereinstimmung mit FLIM-Experimenten an aus der Plasmamembran von HeLa-Zellen gewonnenen Giant vesicles nahe, dass in der Plasmamembran von Zellen eine Vielzahl verschiedener submikroskopischer Lipiddomänen existiert. Darauf aufbauend wurde die Fluoreszenzmikroskopie an GUV angewendet, um die Bindung von fluoreszenzmarkiertem alpha-Synuclein an mittels FLIM charakterisierte Lipiddomänen zu untersuchen. Die Experimente zeigten, dass das Protein mit hoher Affinität an negativ geladene Phospholipide unter der Vorraussetzung bindet, dass diese sich in ld Domänen befinden. Im Gegensatz dazu erfolgt keine Bindung wenn diese Lipide in lo Domänen lokalisiert sind. Im Vergleich zum wildtypischen alpha-Synuclein zeigte die Variante A30P eine geringere Affinität zur Membran, während die E46K-Variante eine stärkere Bindung zeigte. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass bei den erblichen Formen des Morbus Parkinson eine veränderte Assoziation des alpha-Synucleins mit der Membran eine Rolle spielen kann. / In the present study a novel approach to characterize lipid domains, which may provide binding sites for peripheral or integral membrane proteins, is demonstrated. In particular, analysis of fluorescence lifetimes of NBD-labeled lipid analogues was used to study lipid domains in Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUV) and – based on the GUV results – in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. As fluorescence decays in a few nanoseconds it is possible to to detect also very short-lived lipid domains. Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM) revealed that the fluorescence decay of NBD-lipid analogues showed domain dependent decay times in the liquid disordered (ld) and the liquid ordered (lo) phase of GUV. Even the existence of submicroscopic domains in lipid membranes could be detected by FLIM. A broad distribution of the fluorescence lifetime was found for C6-NBD-PC inserted in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. In agreement with FLIM studies on lipid domain forming Giant vesicles derived from the plasma membrane of HeLa-cells this may suggest that a variety of submicroscopic lipid domains exists in the plasma membrane of intact mammalian cells. Based on that, fluorescence microscopy was used on GUV to study the binding of fluorescently labeled alpha-synuclein at lipid domains previously characterized by FLIM. The experiments suggested that alpha-synuclein binds with high affinity to negatively charged phospholipids, when they are embedded in a ld as opposed to a lo environment. When compared with wildtype alpha-synuclein, the disease-causing alpha-synuclein variant A30P bound less efficiently to anionic phospholipids, while the variant E46K showed enhanced binding. This suggests that an altered association of alpha-synuclein with membranes may play a role in the inherited forms of Parkinson’s disease.

Neste trabalho investigamos efeitos de fotoirradiação e toxinas sob membranas celulares miméticas. Foram utilizadas, como modelo de membranas lipídicas, vesiculas unilamelares gigantes (GUVs) compostas pro lipídeos oxidados e não oxidados observadas por microscopia ótica de contraste de fase. Inicialmente estudamos a foto-resposta de membranas compostas por POPC e POPG dispersas em solução contendo azul de metileno (MB). Na sequência, estudamos o efeito de toxinas formadoras de poros, Esticolisina I (ST I) e Esticolisina II (ST II), em membranas contendo lipídeos oxidados e não oxidados. Os resultados de MB (10 µM) disperso em solução de membranas compostas por POPC e o lipídeo aniônico POPG indicaram que o aumento da densidade de carga negativa nas membranas das GUVs, que favorece a ligação da moléculas positivamente carregadas como MB nas membranas, tem como consequência um aumento de permeabilidade da membrana muito mais rápído em relação a membranas compostas apenas por POPC. Isto se deve ao fato que a localização preferencial do MB na membrana de POPC:POPG favorece a formação de oxigênio singlete próximo a dupla ligação da cadeia alquílica, dando início a reação de peroxidação lipídica de maneira mais efetiva que em membrana de POPC. Os resultados da ação das toxinas STI e STII (21 nM) em GUVs contendo lipídeos não oxidados PC e esfingomielina evidenciam que apenas STII é capaz de permear estas membranas a esta concentração. Mais ainda, nossos resultados sugerem que a existência de separação de fases fluida-gel na bicamada lipidica composta por PC:SM (razão molar 1:1) favorece a ação da toxina StII. Ao analisarmos membranas contendo lipídeos hidroperoxidados (POPC-OOH) dispersas em solução contendo STII (21 nM) observamos um aumento de permeabilidade na membrana num conjunto de GUVs, associado a formação de poros, apenas em bicamadas lipídicas formadas por misturas de lipídeos oxidados (POPC) e não oxidados (POPC-OOH). Quanto maior a concentração de lipídeos oxidados na membrana mais rapidamente ocorre o aumento de permeabilidade. / In this work we investigate the effects of photoirradiation and toxins on mimetic cell membranes. As a model of lipid membranes, giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of oxidized and oxidized pro-lipids were observed by optical phase contrast microscopy. Initially we studied the photo-response of membranes composed of POPC and POPG dispersed in solution containing methylene blue (MB). Following, we studied the effect of pore-forming toxins, Sticolysin I (ST I) and Sticolysin II (ST II), on membranes containing oxidized and non-oxidized lipids. The results of MB (10 M) dispersed in solution of membranes composed of POPC and the anionic lipid POPG indicated that the increase in the negative charge density in the membranes of GUVs, which favors the binding of positively charged molecules as MB in the membranes, consequently increases membrane permeability in regard to membranes composed only of POPC. This is due to the fact that the preferred location of the MB in the POPC: POPG membrane favors the formation of singlet oxygen near the double bond of the alkyl chain, initiating the lipid peroxidation reaction more effectively than in the POPC membrane. The results of the action of the STI and STII toxins (21 nM) on GUVs containing non oxidised lipids PC and sphingomyelin show that only STII is able to permeate these membranes at this concentration. Moreover, our results suggest that the existence of fluid-gel phase separation in the lipid bilayer composed of PC:SM (molar ratio 1:1) favors the action of the StII toxin. When analyzing membranes containing hydroperoxidized lipids (POPC-OOH) dispersed in solution containing STII (21 nM) we observed an increase in membrane permeability in a set of GUVs, associated with pore formation, only in lipid bilayers formed by mixtures of oxidized lipids (POPC-OOH) and non-oxidized ones. The higher the concentration of oxidized lipids in the membrane, the faster the permeability increases.

No description available.

In mammalian cells, homeostasis and fate during development relies on the proper transport of membrane-bound cargoes to their designated cellular locations. The hetero-tetrameric adaptor protein complexes (APs) are required for sorting and concentration of cargo at donor membranes, a crucial step during targeted transport. AP2, which functions at the plasma membrane during clathrin-mediated endocytosis, is well characterized. In contrast, AP1 a clathrin adaptor mediating the delivery of lysosomal hydrolases via mannose 6-phosphate receptors (MPRs) and AP3 an adaptor ensuring the proper targeting of lysosomal membrane protein are difficult to study by classic cell biology tools. To gain new insights on these APs, our lab has previously designed an in vitro system. Reconstituted liposomes were modified with small peptides mimicking the cytosolic domains of bona fide cargoes for AP1 and AP3 respectively and thereby enabling the selective recruitment of these APs and the identification of the interacting protein network. In the study at hand we utilize above-described liposomes to generate supported lipid bilayers and Giant Unilamellar Vesicles (GUVs), large-scale membrane systems suited for analysis by fluorescence microscopy. By using cytosol containing fluorescently-tagged subunits, we visualized clathrin coats on artificial membranes under near physiological conditions for the first time. Moreover, we demonstrated clathrin-independent recruitment of AP3 coats on respective GUVs. Presence of active ARF1 was sufficient for the selective assembly of AP1-dependent clathrin coats and AP3 coats on GUVs. By using dye-conjugated ARF1, we show that ARF1 colocalized with AP3 coats on GUVs and that increased association of ARF1 with GUVs coincided with AP1-dependent clathrin coats. Our previous study identified members of the septin family together with AP3 coats on liposomes. Here we show on GUVs, that active ARF1 stimulated the assembly of septin7 filaments, which may constrain the size and mobility of AP3 coats on the surface. Subsequent cell biology studies in HeLa cells linked septins to actin fibers on which they may control mobility of AP3-coated endosomes and thus their maturation. An actin nucleation complex, based on CYFIP1 was identified together with AP1 on liposomes before. Here we show on GUVs, that CYFIP1 is recruited on the surface surrounding clathrin coats. Upon supply of ATP, sustained actin polymerization generated a thick shell of actin on the GUV surface. The force generated by actin assembly lead to formation of long tubular protrusions, which projected from the GUV surface and were decorated with clathrin coats. Thereby the GUV model illustrated a possible mechanism for tubular carriers formation. The importance of CYFIP1-reliant actin polymerization for the generation of MPR-positive tubules at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) of HeLa cells was subsequently demonstrated in our lab. The notion that tubulation of artificial membranes could be triggered by actin polymerization allowed us to perform a comparative mass spectrometry screen. By comparing the abundance of proteins on liposomes under conditions promoting or inhibiting actin polymerization, candidates possibly involved in stabilization, elongation or fission of membrane tubules could be identified. Among the proteins enriched under conditions promoting tubulation, we identified type I phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinases. Their presence suggested an involvement of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) in tubule formation. By cell biology studies in HeLa we show, that down regulation of these enzymes altered the dynamics of fluorescently-tagged MPRs, illustrating the importance of locally confined PI(4,5)P2 synthesis during formation of coated carriers at the TGN. Bin–Amphiphysin–Rvs (BAR) domains are known to sense membrane curvature and induce membrane tubulation. Among various BAR domain proteins, Arfaptin2 was enriched under conditions allowing tubulation of liposomes. By microscopy studies on HeLa cells we show, that Arfaptin2 as well as its close paralog Arfaptin1 were present on AP1-coated MPR tubules emerging from the TGN. We further show, that tubule fission occurred at regions were Arfaptin1 is concentrated and that simultaneous down regulation of both Arfaptins lead to increased number and length of MPR tubules. Since fission of coated transport intermediates at the TGN is poorly understood, our findings contribute a valuable component towards a model describing the entire biogenesis of coated post-Golgi carriers. In conclusion, combining artificial membrane systems and cell biology studies allowed us to propose new models for formation as wall as for fission of AP1-coated transport intermediates at the TGN. Further we gained new insights on AP3 coats and the possible involvement of septin filaments in AP3-dependent endosomal maturation.

Η καλσείνη (calcein) γνωστή και με την αγγλική ορολογία Fluorexon/Fluorescein είναι μια μικρού μοριακού βάρους υδατοδιαλυτή ουσία και χρησιμοποιείται ως μόριο- πρότυπο μικρού υδατοδιαλυτού φαρμάκου, σε πλήθος εφαρμογών τόσο στο τομέα της φαρμακευτικής όσο και στο τομέα της χημείας. Η χρησιμότητα της έγκειται στο γεγονός ότι παρουσιάζει φθορισμό που αποσβένειται σε υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις(100mM) και της εύκολης παρακολούθησης της αποδέσμευσης της από σωματιδιακά συστήματα χορήγησης φαρμάκων. Τα λιποσώματα είναι καθορισμένα λιπιδικά κυστίδια με μέγεθος που κυμαίνεται μεταξύ 0,05-5μm και βρίσκονται εδώ και πολλά χρόνια στο επίκεντρο του ερευνητικού ενδιαφέροντος, ως φορείς φαρμάκων και βιοδραστικών ενώσεων καθώς και για την βελτίωση της απόδοσής τους στους οργανισμούς. Τα λιποσώματα μελετώνται για την απόδοση βιολογικά δραστικών ουσιών κυρίως για τους εξής λόγους: 1. την αδυναμία αυτών των ουσιών να επιτύχουν την επιθυμητή συγκέντρωση στην επιθυμητή περιοχή, 2. την κυτταροτοξικότητά τους και 3. προβλήματα που σχετίζονται με τη χορήγησή τους (για παράδειγμα χαμηλή διαλυτότητά τους σε κατάλληλο φορέα). Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας είναι, η μαθηματική μοντελοποίηση και η μελέτη της κινητικής αποδέσμευσης των μορίων της καλσείνης, που λειτουργούν ως μόρια- πρότυπου υδατοδιαλυτού φαρμάκου, σε συστήματα λιποσωμάτων τα οποία παρασκευάστηκαν σε διαφορετικές λιπιδικές συστάσεις με την επίδραση της χοληστερόλης και της πολυαιθυλενογλυκόλης να καθορίζουν τις φυσικοχημικές τους ιδιότητες και τις αλληλεπιδράσεις μεταξύ των μορίων της καλσείνης. Ειδικότερα, παρασκευάστηκαν λιποσώματα SUV με την μέθοδο του λεπτού υμενίου, στα οποία εγκλωβίστηκε καλσείνη σε υψηλή συγκέντρωση (100mM) με χρήση ακίδας υπερήχων για περίπου 15 λεπτά, σε συστάσεις (PC, PC/Chol 4:1, 2:1 και 1:1 mole/mole) καθώς και (PC/Chol/PEG 2:1:0.04, 2:1:0.08, 2:1:0.16 και 2:1:0.32 mole/mole/mole). Η μελέτη των φυσικοχημικών χαρακτηριστικών των συστημάτων αυτών όπως είναι η μέση υδροδυναμική διάμετρος, η πολυδιασπορά και το ζ-δυναμικό τους, πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη χρήση DLS (Dynamic Light Scattering Nano-ZS Malvern UK) στους 25°C. Ο προσδιορισμός της ποσοστιαίας απελευθέρωσης της καλσείνης (% Cumulative calcein release) έγινε μετά από επώαση των δειγμάτων στους 37°C μέσα σε διάστημα 32h, υπολογίζοντας το ποσοστό συγκράτησης της καλσείνης (Latency %) σε καθορισμένα χρονικά διαστήματα με μέτρηση του φθορισμού (FL) της ουσίας. Στη συνέχεια τα αποτελέσματα αποδόθηκαν αναλυτικά σε διαγράμματα LATENCY% και RETENTION% σε συνάρτηση με το χρόνο με σκοπό να δημιουργηθεί ένα ολοκληρωμένο προφίλ για κάθε λιποσωμική δομή. Τέλος κατασκευάστηκαν διαγράμματα RELEASE% σε συνάρτηση με το χρόνο. Όπως αναμενόταν η διπλοστοιβάδα των PEG-λιποσωμάτων είναι πιο σταθερή σε σχέση με την διπλοστοιβάδα των λιποσωμάτων χωρίς PEG με αποτέλεσμα την ελάττωση της διαπερατότητας της λιπιδικής μεμβράνης. Η ίδια υπόθεση έγινε και στην περίπτωση που στα λιποσώματα προστέθηκε χοληστερόλη, όπου η αύξηση της συγκέντρωσης της χοληστερόλης οδήγησε σε αύξηση της ακεραιότητας της διπλοστοιβάδας τους. Τέλος μια εξίσωση-πρότυπο τριών παραμέτρων κατασκευάστηκε και τροποποιήθηκε κατάλληλα έτσι ώστε να περιγράψει με ακρίβεια τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα. Οι παράμετροι Kon, Koff περιγράφουν την σύνδεση και την αποσύνδεση των μορίων της καλσείνης από τη λιποσωμική δομή και σε συνδυασμό με την παράμετρο Ks καθορίζουν την απελευθέρωση των μορίων της. Στη συνέχεια χρησιμοποιήθηκε η συνάρτηση Weibull, μια σαφώς απλούστερη συνάρτηση σε σχέση με την συνάρτηση τριών παραμέτρων που χρησιμοποιήσαμε αρχικά, έτσι ώστε να καθοριστεί ενδελεχώς ο ρόλος της διάχυσης στα συστήματα λιποσωμάτων που παρασκευάσαμε. Επόμενο βήμα ήταν η επεξεργασία των δύο αυτών συναρτήσεων με την τεχνική Monte Carlo, ώστε να εξαχθεί μια εκτίμηση για την τυπική απόκλιση των παραμέτρων των συναρτήσεων. Τα αποτελέσματα υπέδειξαν την ιδανικότερη τεχνική/μέθοδο προσαρμογής που θα μπορούσε να χρησιμοποιηθεί για κάθε λιποσωμική δομή που παρασκευάσαμε. / Calcein also known as Fluorexon/Fluorescein is a water-soluble substance with low molecular weight. Calcein used as a model-molecule of highly water-soluble drugs in a wide range of applications in pharmaceutics and chemistry. It’s usefulness is due to the fact that fluorescence self-quenches in high concentrations and so it’s release from liposome systems could monitor with ease. Liposomes are vesicles with particle size from 0.05 to 5μm. Liposome structures are at the heart of scientific interest for many years, as they are used as widely in drug delivery systems and have enhanced their performance in biota. Studies in liposomes, focused on the performance of bio-active substances for the following reasons: 1. Weakness of them to achieve the appropriate concentration in the appropriate area. 2. High cytotoxicity and 3. Problems that appears during their administration (f.i. low solubility). The objective of the current study, is to mathematically model and study the release kinetics of calcein molecules (that work as a hydrophilic drug model) from liposome structures with different compositions when cholesterol and polyethylene-glycol determines physicochemical properties and retentions of calcein molecules. Specifically, SUV-liposomes prepared with the thin-film hydration method which encapsulate calcein molecules of high concentration (100mM), were used. Their size was decreased by applying probe sonication for 15min. Phosphatidylcholine (PC), Cholesterol (Chol) and polyethelene-glycol 2000 (PEG) were used in different concentrations (PC, PC/Chol 4:1, 2:1 and 1:1 mole/mole) and (PC/Chol/PEG 2:1:0.04, 2:1:0.08, 2:1:0.16 and 2:1:0.32 mole/mole/mole). Study of vesicle physicochemical characteristics such as z-size, pdi and z-potential, was carried out by DLS (Nano-ZS Malvern UK) at 25°C. Determination of the percentage of Cumulative calcein release taking place during incubation of vesicles at 37°C for up to 32h. Fluorescence Intensity (FL) measurements were performed to estimate the restraint percentage of calcein molecules. Subsequently, final results were attributed to analytical plots (LATENCY % AND RETENTION % with time), in order to create a completed profile for every liposome structure. Finally, results summarized into release curves dependent on time. As expected, the lipid bilayer of PEGylated liposomes was more stable than bilayer of liposomes without PEG coating and as a result the permeability of the later formulation decreased. This was also the case when Chol was included in the liposome membrane; vesicle integrity increased with increasing Chol concentration. A model three-parameter equation was used and modified in appropriately in order to describe the experimental results with accuracy. Parameters Kon, Koff (rate constants of association and disassociation, respectively) and Ks were used to describe the cumulative release of calcein over time, for each formulation study. Subsequently, we use Weibull function, clearly a simpler function in relation to the three-parameters function used initially, in order to determine thoroughly the role of diffusion systems liposome preparations. Next step was the processing of these two functions with Monte Carlo technique in order to extract an estimation of the Standard Deviation (SD) of the parameters of the functions. Results indicated the ideal technique/method of fitting, that could be used for each liposomal structure prepared.