Ephorus was an historian held in high esteem by ancient authors, but his reputation has not fared as well among modern scholars. He has been accused of apolitical simplicity, lack of judgment in selecting sources, political bias, and, most damagingly, choosing or even distorting his material for the purpose of creating moral exempla. This characterization, however, is unfair to Ephorus and his History. Analysis of the fragments does not reveal an explicitly moral purpose to his work, thus he must be freed from the negative implications that such a purpose entails. Nevertheless, as this study will demonstrate, Ephorus did have a concept of ideal communities and how they functioned to ensure internal concord and external security, one that apparently approached historical reality in Scythia and Crete. Both communities, according to Ephorus, are characterized by an aversion to wealth, harmony amongst citizens, and shared communal ownership and responsibility. These themes appear again in Ephorus’ narrative of the 5th and 4th centuries, most prominently in the histories of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Furthermore, these themes are related to philosophical and political discourses of the 4th century found in the major philosophical schools. Thus, while Ephorus should not be considered a moral historian, his worldview was shaped by the philosophy of the 4th century, which helped in the creation of an organized, though possibly overly schematized, understanding of history. / text

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This thesis deals with the problem of the foundations of a Universal History on the bases of the Kantian critical-transcendental system. Its objective is to demonstrate that the theme of Universal History possesses transcendental legitimacy, that is to say it can be seen from the horizon of the Copernican Revolution of thinking. In the first chapter, the nature of the project of a Universal History is characterized and it is sustained that the reflections about history form a unitary and coherent doctrine. In the second chapter, the transcendental legitimacy of the notion of teleology is reconstructed from the Critique of Judgement and it is shown how teleology determined the conception of history. In the last chapter, it is defended that Universal History should be seen as a response to the question what may I hope? and, consequently, as founded on a particular human interest of reason. / Este trabalho de mestrado aborda o problema da fundamentação de uma História universal sobre as bases do sistema crítico-transcendental kantiano. Seu objetivo é mostrar que o tema da história possui legitimidade transcendental, isto é, que ele pode ser visto a partir do horizonte da revolução copernicana do pensamento. No primeiro capítulo, caracteriza-se a natureza do projeto de uma História universal e sustenta-se que as reflexões sobre a história formam uma doutrina unitária e coerente. No segundo capítulo, reconstrói-se, a partir da Crítica da faculdade do juízo, a legitimidade transcendental da noção de teleologia e se mostra como ela determina a concepção de história. No último capítulo, defende-se que a História universal deve ser vista como uma resposta à pertunta que me é permitido esperar? e, por conseguinte, como fundada sobre um particular interesse da razão humana.

La Bouquechardière est une histoire universelle moralisée écrite à partir de 1416 par Jeande Courcy, un chevalier normand. En dépit de cette appropriation plutôt inhabituelle d’un genrehistorique particulièrement ancré dans la théologie, le texte de Jean de Courcy a peu suscitél’intérêt de la critique. Notre présent travail vient combler cette lacune en questionnant lamanière dont l’auteur laïque revisite les codes historiques et homilétiques qui constituaientjusque-là l’apanage des clercs. À un niveau plus large, notre étude permet aussi de cernerdavantage la variabilité d’un panorama auctorial et d’une communication littéraire en pleineévolution à la fin du Moyen Âge. Issu d’une culture laïque, Jean de Courcy doit imposer sacrédibilité à la fois intellectuelle et morale dans le champ des écritures. Sans usurper les rôlesdu clerc ou de l’intellectuel, il crée sa propre fonction auteur : celle de l’écrivain amateur quifonde sa légitimité sur une expérience acquise dans le monde, une accumulation du savoir parla lecture et une attitude dévotionnelle. Son approche chrétienne et édifiante de la lecturedétermine le choix d’écrire une histoire antique à une époque où les écrivains ont plutôttendance à réagir à l’actualité. En effet, la manière dont il ordonne, compile, sélectionne etrecompose la matière trahit une forte soumission de l’histoire à la perspective eschatologique.Traçant un continuum historique des acteurs de l’Antiquité jusqu’au lecteur contemporain, lecompilateur crée les conditions nécessaires à son actualisation. La finalité spirituelle de lalecture autorise alors l’insertion surprenante des fables ovidiennes dans la trame historique. Lafiction mythologique historicisée contient un potentiel herméneutique : elle s’offre comme unsigne de Dieu à déchiffrer au moyen d’une méthode analogique et allégorique. C’est donc enlecteur modèle que Jean de Courcy apprend à son lecteur à fixer le sens des mots et des chosespour qu’au moment de refermer le livre, le processus de refiguration de l’histoire voit le jour.En d’autres termes, la lecture mène à la conversion spirituelle. / The Bouquechardière is a moralized universal history written from 1416 by Jean deCourcy, a Norman knight. Despite this rather unusual appropriation of a historical genreparticularly rooted in theology, Jean de Courcy's text has not aroused much critical interest. Ourpresent work fills this gap by questioning the way in which the lay author revisits the historicaland homiletic codes that were until then the prerogative of clerics. On a broader level, our studyalso makes it possible to better identify the variability of an auctorial panorama and a literarycommunication in full evolution at the end of the Middle Ages. Coming from a secular culture,Jean de Courcy must impose his intellectual and moral credibility in the field of writing.Without usurping the roles of the cleric or the intellectual, he creates his own « fonctionauteur »: an amateur writer who bases his legitimacy on an experience acquired in the world,an accumulation of knowledge through reading and a devotional attitude. His Christian andedifying approach to reading determines the choice to write an Ancient History at a time whenwriters tend to react to current events. Indeed, the way in which he ordered, compiled, selectedand recomposed the material reveals a strong submission of history to the eschatologicalperspective. Tracing a historical continuum from the actors of Antiquity to the contemporaryreader, the compiler creates the necessary conditions for its actualisation. The spiritual purposeof the reading then allows the surprising insertion of Ovidian fables into the historicalframework. Historicalized mythological fiction contains a hermeneutical potential : it is offeredas a sign of God to be deciphered by using an analogical and allegorical method. It. As a modelreader, Jean de Courcy teaches his own reader to fix the meaning of words and things, so thatwhen the book is closed, the process of « refiguration » of history is born. In other words, thereading leads to spiritual conversion.

The central idea of this paper is that our contemporary historical awareness which is increasingly turning towards the future is accessible to philosophical reflection. This raises the question whether we need a new Philosophy of History which refers less to the past, but rather aims primarily at present and future problems. If thereby a moral responsibility for future generations is addressed, Philosophy of History then goes hand in hand with Future Ethics. By means of this programme I expressly follow the Philosophy of History since the European Enlightenment. This entails an ethical perspective since progress in history is not simply predicted, but is more or less explicitly declared as desirable tendency. / Der zentrale Gedanke dieses Papiers ist, dass unser zeitgenössisches historisches Bewusstsein, das sich zunehmend der Zukunft zuwendet, einer philosophischen Reflexion zugänglich ist. Dies wirft die Frage auf, ob wir eine neue Geschichtsphilosophie brauchen, die sich weniger auf die Vergangenheit bezieht, sondern vor allem auf gegenwärtige und zukünftige Probleme zielt. Wenn dabei eine moralische Verantwortung für künftige Generationen angesprochen wird, geht Geschichtsphilosophie dann mit einer Zukunftsethik einher. Mit diesem Programm verfolge ich ausdrücklich die Geschichtsphilosophie seit der europäischen Aufklärung. Dies bringt eine ethische Perspektive mit sich, da der Fortschritt in der Geschichte nicht einfach vorhergesagt, sondern mehr oder weniger explizit als wünschenswerte Tendenz deklariert wird.

The starting point of this work is the concept of indigenous animism in Félix Guattari's late work at the end of his life, understood as a form of subjectivity operating through different regimes of signs than the "modern" one. These animist semiotics are "polysemic" and "trans-individual," while instead of building a sharp division between the spheres of "nature" and "culture", they inhabit reality by "collective entities half-thing half-soul, half- man half-animal, machine and flow, matter and sign." The aim of most of the following text is then primarily to trace these semiotics across the joint work of Deleuze and Guattari. After introducing the context of Deleuze's philosophy and its specific "image of thought," and explaining its basic concepts, we will focus on the description and comparison of the semiotic "ethnographies" of Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus. The first volume traces the "universal history" of the ways of hominization (becoming human) of man from the state of nature, through various forms of inscription, which constitute society and culture. These modes are several and do not work only through language. In the limit experience of schizophrenia, the authors of Anti-Oedipa find a moment preceding all these historically contingent forms of hominization. In contrast, the...