Carbohydrates play major roles in many biological processes. Therefore, the synthesis of oligosaccharides is of considerable interest for biological, medicinal, and pharmacological studies. Many approaches have been developed for the synthesis of oligosaccharides, in which the main focus is often the formation of the glycosidic bonds. Traditional approaches use protecting group strategies that can be time consuming and can result in poor overall yield. This thesis describes the protecting group-free synthesis of a series of glycosyl donors of a range of mono- and disaccharides. These donors can be used to synthesize unprotected glycosyl chlorides, observed in situ. Reaction of the glycosyl chlorides with a variety of nucleophiles afforded the expected displacement products, giving access to a range of O-, N-, and S-linked glycosides, without resorting to the use of protecting groups.

Carbohydrates play major roles in many biological processes. Therefore, the synthesis of oligosaccharides is of considerable interest for biological, medicinal, and pharmacological studies. Many approaches have been developed for the synthesis of oligosaccharides, in which the main focus is often the formation of the glycosidic bonds. Traditional approaches use protecting group strategies that can be time consuming and can result in poor overall yield. This thesis describes the protecting group-free synthesis of a series of glycosyl donors of a range of mono- and disaccharides. These donors can be used to synthesize unprotected glycosyl chlorides, observed in situ. Reaction of the glycosyl chlorides with a variety of nucleophiles afforded the expected displacement products, giving access to a range of O-, N-, and S-linked glycosides, without resorting to the use of protecting groups.

Although the unprotected lands of northern Tanzania support large numbers of elephants, and provide critical linkages for wildlife movements across the region, there is little information on the dispersal patterns of elephants in these unprotected lands. Our home range measures (100% MCP) of 21 elephants with satellite collars in four study regions were highly variable (191 to 3,698 km2). Home range sizes (95% fixed kernel) of bulls were typically larger than those of females, and wet season ranges were typically larger than dry season ranges. There were large differences in average home range sizes reflected varying strategies for obtaining food and water and avoiding humans. All eight radio-collared elephants (3 bulls, 5 females) in the West Kilimanjaro study region crossed the Tanzania-Kenya border, but typically elephants crossed more frequently in the wet than the dry season, and bulls crossed 47% more frequently than females. These extensive transboundary movements indicate that the elephant populations of West Kilimanjaro and Amboseli NP constitute a single transboundary population. Based upon 14,287 fixes from eight collared elephants, the vast majority of time was spent in unprotected ( x=91.5%) versus protected (x =8.5%) areas. Amboseli NP was visited by all eight elephants and was the protected area most utilized ( x=8%, range 2-24%). Based upon the movements of 15 GPS-collared elephants in northern Tanzania, we identified eight areas that we considered important for wildlife conservation corridors/linkages for elephants. Our conservation priorities for these corridors were based upon the levels of threats and conservation potential. Community interviews and hilltop surveys were used in two Maasai villages to determine the extent of wildlife conflict, community attitudes towards elephants, and if elephants were using a vegetation corridor to move between Tanzania and southern Kenya. Elephants were the most problematic wildlife species and were considered a nuisance. However, they believed they attracted tourists, and generally did not believe elephant numbers should be reduced. Based upon elephant conflict and use and the communities' need to maintain areas for cattle grazing and medicinal plant collection, the two communities established the first wildlife conservation corridor in Tanzania.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) account for a majority of all men currently diagnosed with AIDS. MSM is also recognized as the largest risk category of all AIDS cases. Drug use has been shown to have a synergistic effect on the prevalence of HIV in the MSM population. The study aimed to examine the association between injection drug use, non-injection drug use, and non-drug use with sexual risk behaviors for HIV in men who have sex with men. Secondary, cross-sectional data procured from the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System for the Atlanta Metropolitan Survey Area were used for the study. The study population was 960 participants. Using binary logistic regression analyses, the drug use categories were studied for unprotected intercourse, unprotected receptive anal intercourse and HIV status. Strong associations were seen independently for unprotected intercourse, unprotected receptive anal intercourse, and HIV status with injection and non injection drug use, but the association weakened for drug use categories when controlled for other independent factors. Taking into account current findings and findings from previous research, the importance of clinical significance over statistical significance was considered. Racial disparities were evident, in that, although the Black participants showed no increased odds for sexual risk factors or drug use, it had a higher odds for being HIV positive compared to Whites. Combining Viagra/Levitra with drugs was significantly associated with unprotected intercourse (AOR=1.9), and each individual drug showed a different degree of association with Viagra/Levitra. Further research is recommended to identify sub-populations at risk and appropriately allocate resources and channel programs and interventions.

Purpose: Unintended pregnancies are often a burden to pregnant women and to the health care system. The rates of unintended pregnancies have decreased since the wide use of contraceptives has increased; however, young women, women with low income, and racial/ethnic minorities are more likely to use contraceptives inconsistently, which increases the risk of an unintended pregnancy. This risk could be reduced with the proper use of emergency contraceptives (ECs).Methods and Analysis: A cross-sectional study was conducted using the data from the female respondents of the 2002 Cycle 6 NSFG. Logistic regression was used to determine rates of use of ECs among different risk groups. A second analysis only including women who have had an abortion in the past 12 months was also conducted.Results: In the total study population, women over the age of 30 were more likely to never have used ECs, to not have used ECs in the past 12 months, and to not have received EC counseling in the past 12 months. Among those who have had an abortion, women aged 15-19 were less likely to have never received ECs. Those aged 15-19 and 30-34 were less likely to not receive EC counseling. Income level did not have a significant effect on use of EC services. For the whole study population, Hispanic women were significantly less like to not receive ECs in the past 12 months. Hispanic women were also less likely to not receive EC counseling in the past 12 months for the total study population and for those who have had an abortion.Discussion: Unintended pregnancies create burden for individuals as well as the public health infrastructure. ECs could help to prevent some of these unintended pregnancies. Age was the most significant and consistent predictor of use of EC services Further research should focus on evaluating the use of ECs specifically among those who have unprotected sex in order to more precisely evaluate the characteristics of women using and not using ECs. Further research into the barriers preventing women from accessing ECs is also necessary to increase use of ECs and prevent unintended pregnancies.

This study is an analysis of the traffic situation for pedestrians and bicyclist, unprotected road users, in Accra’s Central Business District. A Swedish method, Calm streets, is used to identify conflicts in the mixed traffic situation. The findings reveal a large amount of conflicts between unprotected road users and motor vehicles. These conflicts cause congestions which have negative implications on the environment, health and economy. In addition an assessment of the quality of and access to pedestrian and bicycle facilities were conducted. This assessment indicates that the quality and access to the facilities are in general low, especially for the disabled, elderly and children. A larger Traffic Network Analysis and a Cost Benefit Analysis are needed to address these problems for stakeholders and decision makers.

In the United States, the rates of unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV infection, caused by unprotected sex is alarmingly high. Adverse outcomes of unprotected sexual intercourse continue to be a burden, not only for affected adolescents but for the community at large. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study applied the PRECEDE model as a means to identify those salient risk factors and risk conditions of sex initiation and engagement in unprotected sex among adolescent students. Results showed that 52.6% of the students have had sexual intercourse and 54.5% of sexually experienced students reported inconsistent condom use during sexual intercourse. Logistic regression analysis showed that risks factors for having had sexual intercourse differ from those for having engaged in unprotected sex in sexually experienced students. Furthermore, these factors also differed between male and female students. Only students’ age and perceived hardships related to pregnancy were found to be common risk factors for both outcomes in both sex groups. Results suggest that the PRECEDE is a practical tool to aid program planners identify the intervention priorities most relevant to their target populations.

<p> </p><p>This study is an analysis of the traffic situation for pedestrians and bicyclist, unprotected road users, in Accra’s Central Business District. A Swedish method, Calm streets, is used to identify conflicts in the mixed traffic situation. The findings reveal a large amount of conflicts between unprotected road users and motor vehicles. These conflicts cause congestions which have negative implications on the environment, health and economy.</p><p>In addition an assessment of the quality of and access to pedestrian and bicycle facilities were conducted. This assessment indicates that the quality and access to the facilities are in general low, especially for the disabled, elderly and children. A larger Traffic Network Analysis and a Cost Benefit Analysis are needed to address these problems for stakeholders and decision makers.</p><p> </p>

Road with transit traffic in urban areas entails meeting between relatively high-speed vehicle traffic and unprotected road users in a residential environment. In Sweden there are many, small and large urban areas that are crossed by roads in their central parts. These roads can cause traffic at relatively high speed to affect and create problems for the residential environment in the urban area. Roads in urban areas become problematic in relation to safety because traffic is to interact with unprotected road users. With the citizens' movement pattern as a starting point, this study illustrates how the design of the road can be adapted to the citizens to reduce the risk of accidents. The aim of this study was to investigate the unprotected road users' experience and movement patterns in the road environment at Storgatan in the urban area Robertsfors. The focus is on safety for the unprotected road users and to provide suggestions to improve safety. This study had a qualitative design and based on observation of movement's patterns among people using Storgatan as well as eight semi-structured interviews. The result showed that unprotected road users, expressed the need to reduce the speed of vehicles early in the urban area, to clearly visualize and protect unprotected road users and the importance of the road being part of the urban area and not a transit road. It also emerged that vehicle traffic has a prominent role in urban environment and should be questioned, as the urban area should be perceived as a safe and attractive environment for the residents. The interaction between vehicle traffic and unprotected road users is clearly unequal based on the results of this study.

No description available.