Ce doctorat s'intègre dans les programmes OPUR et Piren-Seine et a eu pour vocation d'améliorer les connaissances actuelles sur l'influence des rejets urbains de temps de pluie sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité des métaux dans les systèmes sous forte pression urbaine tel que la Seine. En effet l’impact des métaux lourds dans le milieu récepteur sur les organismes vivants dépend d'une part de leurs teneurs totales mais aussi et surtout de leur biodisponibilité. Il est généralement admis que la forme biodisponible des métaux lourds pour les organismes vivants est la forme dissoute libre. Les RUTP vont donc pouvoir considérablement modifier la teneur et la biodisponibilité des métaux lourds dans le milieu naturel dans la mesure où ces rejets sont fortement chargés en matière organique dissoute (MOD) qui va influencer considérablement, avec la MOD déjà présente dans le cours d'eau, la spéciation des métaux dans le milieu étant donnée sa capacité à complexer ces derniers et sa tendance à diminuer leur biodisponibilité. La compréhension de l'influence de la MOD sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité des métaux suppose en outre que l'on connaisse précisément sa composition chimique ou plus exactement ses groupements fonctionnels. C'est pourquoi une partie de ces travaux est consacrée à la caractérisation de la matière organique dissoute d'origine naturelle et urbaine par son fractionnement selon le critère de polarité. Une caractérisation plus fine a été réalisée à l'aide des analyses fonctionnelles permettant ainsi de mieux aborder l'influence de la MOD sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité du cuivre. Parallèlement à l'étude de caractérisation de la MOD, ce travail s'attache à mieux cerner le rôle de la MOD d'origine urbaine en particulier de la MOD hydrophile sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité du cuivre. Dans cet objectif, la technique potentiométrique à l'aide d'électrode ionique spécifique ainsi que des biotests de toxicité aiguë (Daphnia magna) ont permis :- d'étudier la complexation du cuivre par les MOD afin notamment de fournir des paramètres de complexations des MOD hydrophiles peu connues jusqu'à présent et ainsi mieux prédire le transport des métaux en milieu urbain.- d'évaluer le rôle protecteur de la MOD d'origine urbaine sur la biodisponibilité du cuivre. Les résultats ont montré que la MOD issue des rejets urbains et rejetée dans le milieu récepteur présente des caractéristiques originales à savoir un fort pourcentage de MOD hydrophile, c'est à dire une faible hydrophobicité et un degré d'aromaticité peu marqué soulignant le caractère peu réfractaire de cette MOD. En revanche une plus grande diversité fonctionnelle de la MOD d'origine urbaine par rapport à la MOD naturelle a été mise en évidence notamment par un taux de structures protéiques très important. Les résultats obtenus vis-à-vis des MOD d'origine urbaine ont montré une réactivité particulière vis-à-vis du cuivre. En effet les rejets urbains ont montré une teneur en sites complexant plus élevée que ce qu'il est observé pour des matières organiques naturelles. Le rôle particulier de groupements amines dans la complexation du cuivre a été mis en évidence. L'approche utilisée pour évaluer la biodisponibilité du cuivre a révélé pour l'ensemble des MOD un effet protecteur vis-à-vis du cuivre sur les organismes vivants. Une corrélation positive de cet effet avec la teneur en eaux usées été mise en évidence, notamment pour les MOD des RUTP et plus particulièrement pour la fraction hydrophile (HPI), signalant ainsi la forte influence de la MOD d'origine urbaine sur la biodisponibilité et la toxicité du cuivre / This thesis was carried out on the framework of the OPUR and Piren-Seine programs. The main objectives were to improve the current knowledge on the influence of combined sewer overflows (CSO) on metal speciation and bioavailability in urban aquatic system. Indeed, the impact of heavy metals in the receiving environment on the life of microorganisms depends on a portion of their total concentrations but also and especially of their bioavailability. It is generally recognized that the bioavailable heavy metals to microorganisms is dissolved free. The CSO's will be able to significantly change the content and bioavailability of heavy metals in the environment in so far as these discharges are heavily loaded with dissolved organic matter (DOM) which will considerably influence with the DOM already present in course of water the speciation of metals in the environment given its ability to complex metals and its tendency to decrease their bioavailability. The understanding of the influence of DOM on trace metal speciation and bioavailability required that the chemical composition of DOM, more exactly its binding sites should be well understood. Therefore, one part of this research focused on the characterization of DOM of natural and urban origin by fractionation according to the criteria of polarity. A finer characterization was performed using functional analyses that were of prime importance to better understand the influence of DOM on copper speciation and bioavailability. Alongside the characterization study of the DOM, this work aims to better understand the role of urban DOM in particular hydrophilic fraction on the speciation and bioavailability of copper. To accomplish these objectives, the technique such as potentiometry with ionic selective electrode and bioassay such as an acute toxicity test (Daphnia magna) were performed in order to: - Study the copper binding by DOM in order to give some binding parameters of hydrophilic DOM and to better predict the fate of the trace metal. - Evaluate the protective role of urban DOM on copper bioavailability. Results showed some particular characteristics of urban DOM such as a high proportion of hydrophilic DOM, i.e. a low hydrophobicity and a low degree of aromaticity underlying the low refractory character of this DOM. Nevertheless a higher content of various functional groups was determined in urban DOM than in natural DOM. A very high content of proteinaceous structures was particularly identified in urban DOM. Binding experiments revealed a higher content of binding sites in urban discharges than in natural DOM and these sites are strongly correlated to amino groups. The approach used to evaluate copper bioavailability depicted a protective role of DOM to the organisms Daphnia magna(...)

Cette thèse de géographie humaine porte sur l’expérience sensible qu’ont les usagers -visiteurs et habitants- d’espaces fluviaux en cours de patrimonialisation, dans deux villes du Sud-ouest de l’Europe : Pau et Saragosse. Soucieuses d’améliorer leur cadre de vie et de poursuivre leur développement économique et urbain, l’agglomération paloise et la ville de Saragosse tentent en effet de mieux intégrer leurs cours d’eau dans leur territoire en se lançant dans un processus de patrimonialisation. Toutefois, la place accordée au tourisme dans ces processus est pour le moins équivoque. L’offre touristique et de loisirs demeure peu structurée et exploitée par les pouvoirs publics, les attentes des visiteurs ignorées. La thèse vise à pallier pour partie ces lacunes en fournissant des éléments de connaissance de l’expérience sensible des usagers. En effet, ces derniers sont susceptibles d’enrichir le projet urbain et d’améliorer la prise en compte du potentiel de l’espace fluvial. Pour questionner l’expérience sensible, entendue dans ses dimensions sensorielles et émotionnelles, et faire émerger la parole des usagers, une démarche de recherche combinatoire a été adoptée. Elle repose sur de l’observation directe et participante et sur le recours à l’outil photographique et filmique comme support d’enquête à l’entretien. L’analyse des 137 rencontres a permis de dégager deux résultats majeurs : d’une part, l’expérience multisensorielle et fragmentaire des espaces fluviaux introduit un rapport intime à l’espace et au temps ; d’autre part, la méconnaissance de l’espace fluvial urbain ne signifie pas nécessairement que les usagers ne s’y intéressent pas et qu’ils n’ont pas d’avis sur les questions de nature-urbaines. Plus généralement, en interrogeant le rapport homme/espace fluvial ou autrement dit homme/nature, cette thèse révèle que ce dernier est perçu de manière ambivalente. Bien qu’apprécié, voire chéri, le cours d’eau est vu comme un espace naturel ordinaire ou possédant quelques éléments remarquables. Qualifié parfois de « sauvage », cet espace se doit toutefois d’être maîtrisé et contrôlé. L’approche géographique adoptée conduit ainsi à placer au cœur du projet urbain l’expérience (res)sentie et vécue par les usagers des espaces publics de nature / This human geography PhD thesis focuses on the sensitive experience that users – visitors and inhabitants - from two south-western European cities, Pau and Saragosse, have of the urban river spaces undergoing a process of patrimonialization. In their attempt to improve the quality of their living environment and carry on with their economic and urban development, the Pau agglomeration and the city of Saragossa are trying to better integrate their watercourses into the urban system through a process of patrimonialization. As for tourism, it holds an ambiguous place in these processes. The offer of tourist and leisure activities is hardly developed and exploited by the public authorities and visitors’ expectations are ignored. This research aims at mitigating some of these gaps by providing information on users’ sensitive experience. As a matter of fact, a better knowledge of users’ experience can enrich the urban project and increase awareness upon the potential of river spaces. In order to explore the sensitive experience, both in its sensory and emotional dimension and highlight users’ considerations, a combinatorial research approach was adopted. It relies on direct and participant observation and on the use of photographic and cinematic tool as a support during the interview. The analysis of the 137 interviews taken allowed the identification of two major results: on one hand, multisensory and fragmentary experience of river spaces generates an intimate reference to space and time and, on the other hand, the ignorance of the river space does not necessarily mean that users are not interested in river spaces, or that they have no opinion on urban nature issues. Extensively, by questioning the relationship between man and river space or in other words man and nature, this PhD thesis reveals that the latter is perceived in an ambivalent way. Although appreciated, and even cherished, the river is seen either as an ordinary natural space or as a place that holds certain remarkable elements. Sometimes qualified as wild, this space ought to be managed and controlled. With regard to the urban project, the geographical approach adopted determines the focus on the experience felt and lived by the users of natural public places. / Esta tesis doctoral en geografía humana, examina la experiencia sensible que tienen los usuarios –visitantes y habitantes- en los espacios fluviales que están en proceso de patrimonialización, en dos ciudades del Sudoeste de Europa: Pau y Zaragoza. Estas dos localidades, con el objetivo de mejorar su entorno de vida e impulsar su desarrollo económico y urbano, intentan integrar el curso de los ríos en su territorio, desarrollando así un proceso de patrimonialización. No obstante, la posición concedida al turismo en estos procesos es confusa, ya que la oferta turística y de ocio queda poco estructurada y explotada por los poderes públicos. Además, las expectativas de los visitantes no se han tomado en cuenta. La tesis aboga por paliar en parte a estas carencias proporcionando elementos de conocimiento de la experiencia sensible de los usuarios. En efecto, estos últimos son susceptibles de enriquecer el proyecto urbano, mejorar y tener en consideración el potencial del espacio fluvial. Para estudiar dicha experiencia, entendida en sus dimensiones sensoriales y emocionales y hacer emerger la voz de los usuarios, se ha adoptado una metodología de investigación combinatoria. En ella se plantea la observación directa y activa y el recurso del instrumento fotográfico y cinematográfico como soporte de las entrevistas. El análisis de los 137 casos nos ha permitido destacar dos importantes resultados. Por una parte, la experiencia multisensorial y fragmentaria de los usuarios acerca de la patrimonialización de los espacios fluviales, que refleja una relación íntima entre espacio y tiempo. Por otra parte, el desconocimiento del espacio fluvial urbano, no significa necesariamente que los usuarios no posean ningún interés u opinión sobre los asuntos de la naturaleza en su entorno urbano. Estas entrevistas también plantean preguntas sobre el vínculo entre el hombre y el espacio fluvial, o entre el hombre y la naturaleza. En ellas hemos observado, que esta relación es percibida de manera ambivalente. Aunque el río es apreciado, y en ocasiones intensamente, representa un espacio ordinario que posee para ciertos usuarios elementos remarcables. Descrito en ocasiones como “salvaje”, debe no obstante ser controlado. A través del enfoque geográfico adoptado en esta tesis, queremos resaltar el lugar céntrico de estos espacios fluviales dentro del proyecto urbano y la experiencia vivida por los usuarios dentro de la naturaleza.

Ce doctorat s’intègre dans le projet ANR BIOMET (JC05_59809) et a eu pour vocation d’améliorer les connaissances actuelles sur l’influence de la matière organique dissoute sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité des métaux particulièrement dans le cas de système sous forte pression urbaine tel que la Seine. La compréhension de l’influence de la MOD sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité des métaux suppose en outre que l’on connaisse précisément sa composition chimique ou plus exactement ses groupements fonctionnels. C’est pourquoi une partie de ces travaux est consacrée à l’extraction et la caractérisation de la matière organique dissoutes d’origine naturelle et urbaine. La caractérisation des fractions de MOD a été réalisée de manière originale par une approche multidimensionnelle à l’aide d’un véritable éventail de techniques analytiques (analyses élémentaires; isotopiques; fonctionnelles et moléculaires) permettant ainsi de mieux aborder l’influence de la MOD sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité du cuivre et du plomb. Parallèlement à l’étude de caractérisation de la MOD, ce travail s’attache à mieux cerner le rôle de la MOD d’origine urbaine en particulier de la MOD hydrophile sur la spéciation et la biodisponibilité du cuivre et du plomb. Dans cet objectif, les techniques : potentiométrique à l’aide d’électrode ionique spécifique et la récente technique électrochimique AGNES ainsi que des biotests de toxicité aiguë (Daphnia magna) et de bioaccumulation (Fontinalis antipyretica) ont permis : - d’étudier la complexation du cuivre et du plomb par les fractions de MOD obtenues afin notamment de fournir des paramètres de complexations des MOD hydrophiles peu connues jusqu’à présent et ainsi mieux prédire le transport des métaux en milieu urbain. - d’évaluer le rôle protecteur de la MOD d’origine urbaine sur la biodisponibilité du cuivre. Les résultats ont montré que la MOD issue des effluents de station d’épuration et rejetée dans le milieu récepteur présente des caractéristiques originales à savoir un fort pourcentage de MOD hydrophile, c’est à dire une faible hydrophobicité et un degré d’aromaticité peu marqué soulignant le caractère peu réfractaire de cette MOD. En revanche une plus grande diversité fonctionnelle de la MOD d’origine urbaine par rapport à la MOD naturelle a été mise en évidence notamment par un taux de structures protéiques très important. Les résultats obtenus ici pour la première fois vis-à-vis des MOD hydrophiles d’origine urbaine ont montré une réactivité particulière vis-à-vis du cuivre. En effet les fractions HPI et plus généralement les fractions issues des effluents de station d’épuration ont montré une teneur en sites complexants plus élevée que ce qu’il avait été déjà observé pour des matières organiques naturelles. Les valeurs des constantes ne semblent pas varier d’une fraction à l’autre et assez peu suivant l’origine de la MOD. Le rôle particulier de l’azote dans la complexation du cuivre notamment sous la forme de groupements amines a été mis en évidence. Les approches utilisées pour évaluer la biodisponibilité du cuivre ont révélé pour l’ensemble des fractions de MOD un effet protecteur vis-à-vis du cuivre sur les organismes vivants. Néanmoins cet effet protecteur ne se trouve pas à la hauteur de celui pouvant être prédit par le modèle de l’ion libre principalement dû à une biodisponibilité de certains complexes organiques. Ceci peut être expliqué par l’important taux de structures protéiques dans ces MOD, les protéines étant connues pour jouer un rôle important dans les mécanismes de transports des métaux au sein des organismes. Par ailleurs, l’outil DGT (Diffusive gradient in thin films) a montré son efficacité pour évaluer la fraction biodisponible du cuivre / This thesis was carried out on the framework of the ANR BIOMET research project (JC05_59809). The main objectives were to improve the current knowledge on the influence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on metal speciation and bioavailability in urban aquatic system. The understanding of the influence of DOM on trace metal speciation and bioavailability required that the chemical composition of DOM, more exactly its binding sites should be well understood. Therefore, one part of this research focused on the isolation and characterization of DOM. The characterization of DOM, with a multidimensional approach was realized with a lot of various techniques (such as elemental, isotopic, functional and molecular) that were of prime importance to better understand the influence of DOM on trace metal speciation and bioavailability. To accomplish these objectives, the techniques such as potentiometry with ionic selective electrode and the recent electroanalytical technique AGNES and bioassays such as a bioaccumulation test (Fontinalis antipyretica) and an acute toxicity test (Daphnia magna) were performed in order to: - study the copper and lead binding by isolated DOM fractions in order to give some binding parameters of hydrophilic DOM and to better predict the fate of the trace metal. - evaluate the protective role of urban DOM on copper bioavailability. Results showed some particular characteristics of DOM from wastewater effluent such as a high proportion of hydrophilic DOM, i.e. a low hydrophobicity and a low degree of aromaticity underlying the low refractory character of urban DOM. Nevertheless a higher content of various functional groups was determined in urban DOM than in natural DOM. A very high content of proteinaceous structures was particularly identified in urban DOM. Binding experiments revealed for the first time on urban hydrophilic DOM, a higher content of binding sites than in natural DOM and these sites are strongly correlated to amino groups. The values of binding constant seem to not vary according to the nature of the fraction or the origin. The different approaches used to evaluate copper bioavailability depicted a protective role of DOM to the organisms Daphnia magna and Fontinalis antipyretica. Nevertheless this protective effect is hardly explained by the free ion concentration due to a bioavailability of some organic complexes. This feature could be explain with the high content of proteinaceous structures in these DOM fractions, since proteins are well know to play an important role in the transport mechanisms of trace metals into the organisms. Moreover, the DGT device (diffusive gradient in thin films) shows a good efficiency to assess the bioavailable copper

Many natural areas and systems within urban landscapes are small or narrow. Landscape ecology studies within forested and agricultural landscapes have found that small natural areas that are protected from development or resource extraction through land use planning are significantly affected by adjacent land use changes. Some eventually lose the values for which they were protected. Studies also indicate that natural area boundary structures and functions are important determinants of the extent to which external threats affect adjacent natural areas. Few studies have empirically tested whether small or narrow urban natural areas that are protected from development through municipal land use planning are significantly affected by adjacent land use changes. However, municipal planners and forest managers are concerned that activities of residents living adjacent to the forest edge, commonly referred to as residential encroachment, may be degrading the social values, and ecological forms and functions of their woodlands. Studies have recorded evidence of human impacts within suburban forest edges, indicating that both recreation and yard-related activities are occurring and that these activities occur at significantly higher frequencies in the forest edge than in the interiors of these forests. However, no study has differentiated residential encroachment activities from those of other recreationists. In addition, although a number of municipalities have developed policies to address these activities, little is known about these policies, the extent to which they are implemented, or their effectiveness in protecting their small or narrow forested natural areas from residential encroachment activities. The principal research questions answered in this research are: 1) Do municipalities within Southern Ontario have policies for protecting natural areas from the activities of residents living adjacent to suburban forest edges? 2) To what extent are they implementing these policies? 3) What encroachment activities, if any, are occurring in Southern Ontario municipal forest edges? and 4) Are municipal boundary-related policies effective in limiting edge-resident encroachment activities? Using a mixed method approach, the research incorporates qualitative and quantitative data collection to answer these questions. The content analysis of official and secondary plans and social surveys of key informants within six Southern Ontario municipalities identify boundary-related policies for protecting municipal natural areas from residential encroachment activities. They also determine the extent to which the study municipalities implement these policies. Field studies in 40 forests within these municipalities used unobtrusive measurements of encroachment behaviour to describe encroachment activities under two implemented municipal boundary demarcation policies, and other boundary treatments The three research methods, together with a literature review, were used to determine whether Ontario municipal policies are effective in limiting edge-resident encroachment activities within municipal forest edges. The content analysis and interviews indicated that, in general, municipal policies were insufficient to address the edge-resident encroachment issue. Policies had been established, but not at a sufficiently authoritative policy level (i.e. the official plan level) to support their implementation by staff. In addition, policies were missing explicit goals, objectives and strategies to direct their implementation, and the municipalities had not integrated their disparate policy components into an integrated course of action through time and space. The municipalities were successful in implementing policies to prevent edge resident encroachment within natural areas adjacent to newly developing subdivisions. However, they had infrequently implemented their policies for preventing encroachment within natural areas adjacent to established subdivisions. Furthermore, all the municipalities were not frequently implementing their policies to remediate existing encroachments within natural areas adjacent to newly developing or established subdivisions. The unobtrusive measurement of encroachment behaviour confirmed that residential encroachment activities generated a housing effect zone of impact within municipal forest edges. The distribution of the evidence of encroachment was significantly biased to the forest border. Encroachment traces were highly prevalent within study forests, occurring in over 94% of sites and covering 26 to 50% of the sampled area. Encroachment traces were particularly intense in the first 8 metres from the forest border; but extended a mean maximum extent of 16 metres from the forest border, with 95% of the evidence of encroachment lying within 34 metres. Boundary type significantly affected the mean frequency, intensity and maximum extent of encroachment. Mean frequencies, intensities and extents of all encroachment, and of most encroachment categories, were generally higher in sites with boundary types that allowed edge residents ready access to the forest edge. Conversely, sites with boundary treatments that had barriers to entry, such as fences or grass strips, tended to have lower encroachment levels. Sites with multiple barriers, such as those with fences, grass strips and paths, tended to have the lowest mean frequencies, intensities and mean maximum extents of encroachment. While sites with implemented municipal post and fence policies had significantly lower mean frequencies, intensities and, in the case of fences extents of encroachment, they were not significantly different from those of sites under some of the boundary types not subject to municipal policies. They were also significantly higher than those of sites with fences and grass strips (with or without pathways). Sites with municipal posts had significantly lower mean intensities of encroachment than sites with other boundaries that enabled residents to enter the forest edge, and had significantly lower mean frequencies of waste disposal traces than fenced sites. Sites with fences also had significantly lower mean intensities of encroachment than sites with no boundary demarcation, or sites with fences and gates, and were particularly effective in reducing the incidence of yard extension encroachments, and mean maximum extents of encroachment. Despite the effectiveness of these boundary demarcation policies, and that of some of the other boundary treatments evaluated, none of the boundary treatments was effective in eliminating encroachment traces. A buffer of between 10 and 20 metres in width would be required to segregate the mean maximum extent of encroachment activities from sensitive forest edges, depending on the boundary demarcation policy, or type. The research concludes that current municipal policies are insufficient to meet the complexity and scope of the encroachment activities occurring. Some preventative policies have been developed and are regularly implemented within natural areas adjacent to new subdivisions. However, implemented boundary demarcation policies are insufficient to eliminate, or minimize residential encroachment. Wider more complex boundary policies that limit different types of encroachment and include elements that reduce access, spatially separate, and encourage informal residential surveillance (such as fences, grass strips and pathways) can further reduce encroachment levels. Few municipalities have established boundary demarcation policies to prevent encroachment within natural areas adjacent to established subdivisions, and study municipalities infrequently implement policies and bylaws to mitigate existing encroachments within these areas. Yet interviewees, and the results of the unobtrusive measurement of encroachment in study forest edges, indicate that encroachment activities are highly prevalent within these municipal forests. Policies at all levels, and particularly at the official plan level, are required to protect natural areas from edge resident encroachment, and other forms of post development impacts on natural areas. These policies are required to support the more rigorous enforcement of encroachment bylaws, and the negotiation, and implementation of effective buffers and boundary demarcation treatments. In consideration of these results and conclusions, the dissertation describes the implications for municipal planning policy and urban and regional planning theory, and provides recommendations for future research.

Many natural areas and systems within urban landscapes are small or narrow. Landscape ecology studies within forested and agricultural landscapes have found that small natural areas that are protected from development or resource extraction through land use planning are significantly affected by adjacent land use changes. Some eventually lose the values for which they were protected. Studies also indicate that natural area boundary structures and functions are important determinants of the extent to which external threats affect adjacent natural areas. Few studies have empirically tested whether small or narrow urban natural areas that are protected from development through municipal land use planning are significantly affected by adjacent land use changes. However, municipal planners and forest managers are concerned that activities of residents living adjacent to the forest edge, commonly referred to as residential encroachment, may be degrading the social values, and ecological forms and functions of their woodlands. Studies have recorded evidence of human impacts within suburban forest edges, indicating that both recreation and yard-related activities are occurring and that these activities occur at significantly higher frequencies in the forest edge than in the interiors of these forests. However, no study has differentiated residential encroachment activities from those of other recreationists. In addition, although a number of municipalities have developed policies to address these activities, little is known about these policies, the extent to which they are implemented, or their effectiveness in protecting their small or narrow forested natural areas from residential encroachment activities. The principal research questions answered in this research are: 1) Do municipalities within Southern Ontario have policies for protecting natural areas from the activities of residents living adjacent to suburban forest edges? 2) To what extent are they implementing these policies? 3) What encroachment activities, if any, are occurring in Southern Ontario municipal forest edges? and 4) Are municipal boundary-related policies effective in limiting edge-resident encroachment activities? Using a mixed method approach, the research incorporates qualitative and quantitative data collection to answer these questions. The content analysis of official and secondary plans and social surveys of key informants within six Southern Ontario municipalities identify boundary-related policies for protecting municipal natural areas from residential encroachment activities. They also determine the extent to which the study municipalities implement these policies. Field studies in 40 forests within these municipalities used unobtrusive measurements of encroachment behaviour to describe encroachment activities under two implemented municipal boundary demarcation policies, and other boundary treatments The three research methods, together with a literature review, were used to determine whether Ontario municipal policies are effective in limiting edge-resident encroachment activities within municipal forest edges. The content analysis and interviews indicated that, in general, municipal policies were insufficient to address the edge-resident encroachment issue. Policies had been established, but not at a sufficiently authoritative policy level (i.e. the official plan level) to support their implementation by staff. In addition, policies were missing explicit goals, objectives and strategies to direct their implementation, and the municipalities had not integrated their disparate policy components into an integrated course of action through time and space. The municipalities were successful in implementing policies to prevent edge resident encroachment within natural areas adjacent to newly developing subdivisions. However, they had infrequently implemented their policies for preventing encroachment within natural areas adjacent to established subdivisions. Furthermore, all the municipalities were not frequently implementing their policies to remediate existing encroachments within natural areas adjacent to newly developing or established subdivisions. The unobtrusive measurement of encroachment behaviour confirmed that residential encroachment activities generated a housing effect zone of impact within municipal forest edges. The distribution of the evidence of encroachment was significantly biased to the forest border. Encroachment traces were highly prevalent within study forests, occurring in over 94% of sites and covering 26 to 50% of the sampled area. Encroachment traces were particularly intense in the first 8 metres from the forest border; but extended a mean maximum extent of 16 metres from the forest border, with 95% of the evidence of encroachment lying within 34 metres. Boundary type significantly affected the mean frequency, intensity and maximum extent of encroachment. Mean frequencies, intensities and extents of all encroachment, and of most encroachment categories, were generally higher in sites with boundary types that allowed edge residents ready access to the forest edge. Conversely, sites with boundary treatments that had barriers to entry, such as fences or grass strips, tended to have lower encroachment levels. Sites with multiple barriers, such as those with fences, grass strips and paths, tended to have the lowest mean frequencies, intensities and mean maximum extents of encroachment. While sites with implemented municipal post and fence policies had significantly lower mean frequencies, intensities and, in the case of fences extents of encroachment, they were not significantly different from those of sites under some of the boundary types not subject to municipal policies. They were also significantly higher than those of sites with fences and grass strips (with or without pathways). Sites with municipal posts had significantly lower mean intensities of encroachment than sites with other boundaries that enabled residents to enter the forest edge, and had significantly lower mean frequencies of waste disposal traces than fenced sites. Sites with fences also had significantly lower mean intensities of encroachment than sites with no boundary demarcation, or sites with fences and gates, and were particularly effective in reducing the incidence of yard extension encroachments, and mean maximum extents of encroachment. Despite the effectiveness of these boundary demarcation policies, and that of some of the other boundary treatments evaluated, none of the boundary treatments was effective in eliminating encroachment traces. A buffer of between 10 and 20 metres in width would be required to segregate the mean maximum extent of encroachment activities from sensitive forest edges, depending on the boundary demarcation policy, or type. The research concludes that current municipal policies are insufficient to meet the complexity and scope of the encroachment activities occurring. Some preventative policies have been developed and are regularly implemented within natural areas adjacent to new subdivisions. However, implemented boundary demarcation policies are insufficient to eliminate, or minimize residential encroachment. Wider more complex boundary policies that limit different types of encroachment and include elements that reduce access, spatially separate, and encourage informal residential surveillance (such as fences, grass strips and pathways) can further reduce encroachment levels. Few municipalities have established boundary demarcation policies to prevent encroachment within natural areas adjacent to established subdivisions, and study municipalities infrequently implement policies and bylaws to mitigate existing encroachments within these areas. Yet interviewees, and the results of the unobtrusive measurement of encroachment in study forest edges, indicate that encroachment activities are highly prevalent within these municipal forests. Policies at all levels, and particularly at the official plan level, are required to protect natural areas from edge resident encroachment, and other forms of post development impacts on natural areas. These policies are required to support the more rigorous enforcement of encroachment bylaws, and the negotiation, and implementation of effective buffers and boundary demarcation treatments. In consideration of these results and conclusions, the dissertation describes the implications for municipal planning policy and urban and regional planning theory, and provides recommendations for future research.