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This dissertation explores the inception, evolution, and history of the East Washington community, located in East Point, Georgia. This African American community was strategically created in 1912, when the city council passed its first residential segregation ordinance. This research uses oral histories and other documents to reveal the survival techniques that enabled East Washington residents to endure the turmoil of Jim Crow racial segregation from the community’s 1912 inception, through urban renewal, integration, white flight, and the return of African Americans in the 1980s that resulted in their population majority. First, it identifies the people who chose to migrate to this area, where they came from and what enticed them to settle in East Point. Second, it discusses the network of institutions that they built and depended upon, including businesses, schools and churches, in order to maintain their largely autonomous community. Finally, it demonstrates the methods East Washington citizens employed to build a community that educated, protected, and nurtured children who became elected city officials, fire chiefs, professors, attorneys, physicians, teachers, dentists, human rights activists, and productive citizens of society.

Acomodar adequadamente uma população urbana crescente terá implicações maiores não só para a indústria da construção, empregos e habitação, mas também para a infraestrutura associada, incluindo transporte, energia, água e espaços abertos ou verdes. Limitações da infraestrutura geralmente incluem o envelhecimento, subutilização e inadequação, assim como uma ausência de integração das estratégias de planejamento, projeto e gestão para o desenvolvimento futuro da cidade, em cenários de longo prazo. A exemplo do retrofit de edifícios, em que as intervenções ocorrem no âmbito do edifício isolado e seus sistemas constituintes, o retrofit urbano pode ser entendido como um conjunto de intervenções urbanas com vistas não somente à adequação da área urbana para atingir a sustentabilidade no momento presente, frente a problemas e demandas atuais, mas vislumbra a adequação para população e demandas futuras, fazendo a transição da situação atual da cidade para sua visão de futuro. Esta transição, o retrofit urbano em si, apresenta caráter abrangente e de larga escala, natureza integrada e deve ser mensurado por meio de indicadores e metas claramente definidos para monitoramento. Portanto, esta tese apresenta um método para implementação de retrofit urbano, na escala de cidades, para auxiliar a definição de metas de longo prazo e a tomada de decisão em processos de planejamento urbano. Utilizando as metas dos ODS - Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável, os \"indicadores de serviços urbanos e qualidade de vida\" da NBR ISO 37120:2017 (ABNT, 2017a), análise de tendência por Média Móvel Simples e benchmarking por análise de agrupamento (clustering), o resultado é um painel visual (dashboard), adaptável e flexível, passível de agregações e filtros, tais como: seções e temas da ISO 37120, classificação de indicadores, diferentes escalas temporais e espaciais, entre outras. O dashboard é interativo e amigável, traz informações e resultados desta pesquisa e pode ser totalmente acessado em https://bit.ly/2EDnZ4J. Sorocaba, município de grande porte do Estado de São Paulo, é utilizada como estudo de caso, evidenciando os desafios e oportunidades gerados pelo rápido crescimento populacional e auxiliando a priorizar intervenções de retrofit para o desenvolvimento urbano na direção de cenários futuros. / Accommodating growing populations in cities will have major implications not only for employment, housing and the construction industry, but also for urban infrastructure including transportation, energy, water and open or green space. Infrastructure constraints currently include ageing, underutilized and inadequate existing built environment, as well as a lack of integration in planning, design and management strategies for future infrastructure development in long-term scenarios. As building retrofit, which interventions take place in isolated buildings and their constituting systems performance, urban retrofitting can be understood as a set of interventions designed to upgrade and sustain an urban area by providing a long-term practical response to its current problems and pressures. Such interventions must take into account the future population´s needs by ensuring that the present urban infrastructure provides a firm basis for launching and achieving a city\'s ambitions for the future. One of the main requirements for urban retrofitting is a clearly defined set of goals and metrics for monitoring purposes. This thesis presents a method for urban retrofit implementation at city scale using a visual tool to support decision-making and urban planning processes. Using Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targets, the 100 ISO 37120:2014 \'indicators for city services and quality of life\', Simple Moving Averages (SMA) trend analysis, clustering and city benchmarking, this method proposes creating an adaptative and flexible dashboard, that could aggregate and filter data, such as: ISO 37120 sections, indicators classification, time and spatial levels, etc. The resulting dashboard is interactive and friendly, and can be fully accessed in https://bit.ly/2EDnZ4J. We use Sorocaba, a medium sized, well-located city in São Paulo State in Brazil, as a case study, focusing on the challenges and opportunities arising from exceptional urban population growth, and ranking key retrofit interventions in Sorocaba as possible forerunners of future urban development scenarios.

Acomodar adequadamente uma população urbana crescente terá implicações maiores não só para a indústria da construção, empregos e habitação, mas também para a infraestrutura associada, incluindo transporte, energia, água e espaços abertos ou verdes. Limitações da infraestrutura geralmente incluem o envelhecimento, subutilização e inadequação, assim como uma ausência de integração das estratégias de planejamento, projeto e gestão para o desenvolvimento futuro da cidade, em cenários de longo prazo. A exemplo do retrofit de edifícios, em que as intervenções ocorrem no âmbito do edifício isolado e seus sistemas constituintes, o retrofit urbano pode ser entendido como um conjunto de intervenções urbanas com vistas não somente à adequação da área urbana para atingir a sustentabilidade no momento presente, frente a problemas e demandas atuais, mas vislumbra a adequação para população e demandas futuras, fazendo a transição da situação atual da cidade para sua visão de futuro. Esta transição, o retrofit urbano em si, apresenta caráter abrangente e de larga escala, natureza integrada e deve ser mensurado por meio de indicadores e metas claramente definidos para monitoramento. Portanto, esta tese apresenta um método para implementação de retrofit urbano, na escala de cidades, para auxiliar a definição de metas de longo prazo e a tomada de decisão em processos de planejamento urbano. Utilizando as metas dos ODS - Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável, os \"indicadores de serviços urbanos e qualidade de vida\" da NBR ISO 37120:2017 (ABNT, 2017a), análise de tendência por Média Móvel Simples e benchmarking por análise de agrupamento (clustering), o resultado é um painel visual (dashboard), adaptável e flexível, passível de agregações e filtros, tais como: seções e temas da ISO 37120, classificação de indicadores, diferentes escalas temporais e espaciais, entre outras. O dashboard é interativo e amigável, traz informações e resultados desta pesquisa e pode ser totalmente acessado em https://bit.ly/2EDnZ4J. Sorocaba, município de grande porte do Estado de São Paulo, é utilizada como estudo de caso, evidenciando os desafios e oportunidades gerados pelo rápido crescimento populacional e auxiliando a priorizar intervenções de retrofit para o desenvolvimento urbano na direção de cenários futuros. / Accommodating growing populations in cities will have major implications not only for employment, housing and the construction industry, but also for urban infrastructure including transportation, energy, water and open or green space. Infrastructure constraints currently include ageing, underutilized and inadequate existing built environment, as well as a lack of integration in planning, design and management strategies for future infrastructure development in long-term scenarios. As building retrofit, which interventions take place in isolated buildings and their constituting systems performance, urban retrofitting can be understood as a set of interventions designed to upgrade and sustain an urban area by providing a long-term practical response to its current problems and pressures. Such interventions must take into account the future population´s needs by ensuring that the present urban infrastructure provides a firm basis for launching and achieving a city\'s ambitions for the future. One of the main requirements for urban retrofitting is a clearly defined set of goals and metrics for monitoring purposes. This thesis presents a method for urban retrofit implementation at city scale using a visual tool to support decision-making and urban planning processes. Using Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targets, the 100 ISO 37120:2014 \'indicators for city services and quality of life\', Simple Moving Averages (SMA) trend analysis, clustering and city benchmarking, this method proposes creating an adaptative and flexible dashboard, that could aggregate and filter data, such as: ISO 37120 sections, indicators classification, time and spatial levels, etc. The resulting dashboard is interactive and friendly, and can be fully accessed in https://bit.ly/2EDnZ4J. We use Sorocaba, a medium sized, well-located city in São Paulo State in Brazil, as a case study, focusing on the challenges and opportunities arising from exceptional urban population growth, and ranking key retrofit interventions in Sorocaba as possible forerunners of future urban development scenarios.

A alteração dos processos produtivos da metrópole contemporânea encontra na Vila Leopoldina um exemplar bastante ilustrativo. O distrito abriga em seu território a estrutura da metrópole industrial no que diz respeito à circulação e tecidos viários e significativa presença de galpões desocupados, fruto da diminuição da atividade industrial no processo produtivo contemporâneo da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. A estrutura industrial não representou um impeditivo para as transformações espaciais. Ao contrário, tornou?se uma importante peça na estratégia de ação do capital imobiliário sobre o bairro. Essa pesquisa identifica três territórios invisíveis que em alguns momentos se sobrepõem, em outros cooperam e em outros conflitam, em meio às contradições sociais e às diferentes estratégias de apreensão do espaço. Os territórios da Permanência, Ruptura e Resistência são tratados como o resultado da relação entre segmentos sociais específicos e o espaço urbano onde se inserem. A fim de compreender o papel de cada um deles no processo de alteração de padrões do distrito, a dissertação apresenta uma pesquisa histórica, enfatizando o surgimento e as dinâmicas dos três territórios, ancorada no processo de produção cartográfica descrito na metodologia. Para compreender as relações que estabelecem entre si, o trabalho é concluído com a análise das camadas materiais e imateriais dos territórios, com ênfase na Permanência, identificando dois padrões distintos de exclusão sócio?espacial, resultantes da ação do mercado imobiliário ao longo das últimas décadas. Estudar um bairro em profunda transformação oferece a oportunidade de compreender como se dão as relações interpessoais e as lutas pela conquista de espaço onde os marcos físicos, os padrões, os usos e ocupações se alteram. / The transformation of productive processes of the contemporary metropolis finds in Vila Leopoldina an illustrative model. The district shelters in its territory the structure of the industrial metropolis as what concerns the circulation and transport\'s network and meaningful presence of unoccupied barns, as a result of the decrease of industrial activity in the productive contemporary process of São Paulo metropolitan region. The industrial structure did not represent an obstacle to the transformation of its space. Instead, it became an important part in the strategy for action of the real state capital upon the neighbourhood. The present research identifies three invisible territories that at times overlap, at times cooperate, at times enter in conflict due to social contradictions and towards different strategies for the perception of the space. The territories we named as Permanence, Disruption and Resistance are considered the result of the relationship between specific social groups and the urban space in which they operate. In order to understand the role of each in the process of changing patterns of the district, this dissertation presents a historical research, underlining the emergence and the dynamics of those three territories, based on cartographic production process described in the methodology chapter. To understand the relationships established between them, the text concludes with the analysis of the material and immaterial layers of those territories, giving emphasis on Permanence, identifying two distinct patterns of socio?spatial exclusion, resulting from the action of the Real?estate market over the past decades. To study a neighborhood in deep transformation process offers the opportunity to understand how the interpersonal relationships occur and the struggles for the conquest of space where the physical landmarks, patterns, uses and occupations is in constant transformation.

Transformation of informal housing settlements by urban renewal and redevelopment has become one of the major tasks of Turkish urban policy in the last decades. Nevertheless, in some cases urban redevelopment could not be facilitated due to low level of investments / and moreover most of the transformed settlements are still problematic with added difficulties brought out by urban transformation itself such as lower levels of physical quality, gentrification or dislocation. Understanding the sources of these implications and incompetence would be an important step for developing more successful policy and planning tools. To serve this aim, hypothesizing that there would be available regulatory tools including planning besides policy options relying on finance for local and central authorities and planning institutions on the basis of their political and regulative power and resources to overcome most of these bottlenecks / I have carried out both a theoretical and an empirical research to discuss the relevancy of this hypothesis. First, I have developed an institutional model of urban transformation to unravel the constituent shaping factors and actors of the process. Secondly, I have implemented this model for the analyses of urban transformation in informal settlements in Turkey with a case study in Sentepe and carried out surveys with households and interviews with developers to focus more on household and developer perspectives in terms of their aims and the implications they have an impact upon and are subjected to. Thus, this thesis includes an institutional analysis of urban transformation in informal settlements of Turkey, outlines the major problems of implications, discusses the links between factors, actors, events and their implications and accordingly searches for clues of efficient policies and better practices in urban transformation with a case study in Sentepe Neighbourhood. The findings of the empirical study revealed that first and foremost, the problem of disinvestment and very low levels of transformation in the area have been solved dramatically by a new &#039 / project&#039 / by the local authority in 2005, after almost twenty years passed since the first redevelopment plans were prepared. Moreover, the results indicate that the Sentepe Transformation Project could also managed to avoid the well-known unintended or undesirable social outcomes of a typical redevelopment like dislocation of residents or social integration of initial and new residents. These findings of the research suggest that local authorities and planning institutions could avoid some but not all of the bottlenecks and drawbacks of market mechanism in urban redevelopment even by making minor changes in the institutional environment such as providing information flow, easing the procedures for investors and developers, changing subdivisions and planning additional green areas for increasing the attractiveness of investments by builders in that area, and adoption of more participative approaches for developers and households. On the other hand, if the complementary housing and non-housing policies for redevelopment / such as affordable housing, employment or rent assistance are lacking, some of the outlined problems remain hard to solve. For local authorities and planners, these findings suggest the importance of accommodating policies, which are more responsive to the locality, to the needs and perceptions of local residents, local developers and local economy as well as of considering vulnerable sections of the society. For central authorities, on the other hand, the findings underline the cruciality of upper scale policies both directly and indirectly related to housing such as affordable housing and employment in the overall success of any local urban redevelopment practice. Once we have the institutional model to imply on various urban renewal processes, it would be helpful to carry out comparative studies for future research to better understand and evaluate various policy tools.

Urban transformation initiatives are interventions that aim to manage urban change. Evolving from slum clearance and renewal, these initiatives took different forms throughout the century, in accordance with their social, economic and spatial contexts. The dominant urban context of the late 20th and early 21st century being deindustrialization and decentralization, urban redevelopment and regeneration initiatives became the highlights of urban policy. Alongside the ever-transforming residential neighborhoods and city centers, deindustrialization brought about change in some other parts of the city that had incredible value: Docklands. These areas were slowly being abandoned in this period / creating serious socio-economic and spatial problems while also creating unique opportunities for cities in their adaptation to the postindustrial economy. The fall of production as the basis of urban economies was followed by the rise of consumption, which cherished these vast and publicly owned spaces abandoned by production related uses. Turkish cities are, and have been, transforming with a pace which policy intervention can barely catch up with. Turkish docklands are under real estate investment pressure in a similar way to the vacant docklands of postindustrial cities around the world, but with one significant difference. Dockland transformation has not been the condition, but is the desired situation in our port cities / HaydarpaSa port constituting one of the best examples. While still fully functional, this important port and its surroundings, including the HaydarpaSa train station, has been subject to transformation proposals throughout the last decade. Following a number of unsuccessful initiatives, the latest proposal for the area has been HaydarpaSa World Trade Center and Cruiser Project. This thesis aims to understand the actual forces behind transformation of a dockland area in Turkey, and to determine if the proposals have been addressing these forces and factors. The study involves examination of the conditions of urban development in the postindustrial era and some cases of dockland transformation schemes launched in this period. The aim is to compare these cases and their backgrounds to the context of the HaydarpaSa area, in order to determine the relevance of the utilized policy models to transform this extremely valuable part of the Bosphorus.