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The main thesis of this study is that migration is an integral component of the major processes of structural change in a country. As such, migration should not be studied in isolation from the historical and evolving patterns of development of the country. In their specific forms and magnitudes, migration processes are patterned movements of human populations within and between territorial units. The important point to stress here is that these movements are a response to, and at the same time, conditions the economic and social forces which affect significant sections of a community.

This thesis explores how an adherence to professional principles can be reconciled with a commitment to inclusive participatory planning processes in urban governance. Two themes are drawn together. First, the study concerns recent shifts in thinking about public participation that have resulted in innovative approaches to engaging citizens in urban governance processes through deliberative, interactive workshops and forums. Second, the study focuses on power relations that are inherent in such forums, particularly when a variety of different knowledges (expert and lay) interact. The two themes are brought together by focusing on the participatory practices of the urbanist movement - an urban form movement that draws specific principles from the urbanism of traditional towns and cities in order to create socially and environmentally sustainable places. Within urbanist participation, professional principles for the built environment and a commitment to a form of deliberative democracy are combined. In this study, the crucial question asked is: what is the nature and effect of the power relations on the democratic character of public involvement in participatory planning processes? To explore this issue, two urbanist Enquiry by Design processes were selected as retrospective case studies. One case involved a regeneration project for an inner urban area of a north England industrial town, while the other case involved a greenfield urban extension in the south west of England. The empirical research, undertaken in mid 2005, comprised 52 semi-structured interviews, analysis of extensive background material, and site visits. Research participants were selected to capture a range of perspectives and experiences of each process. To understand the power relations in the cases a two pronged approach was taken. The study was informed by literature from communicative planning theory and deliberative democracy. From this literature, an Ethic for Communicative Participation was developed as a heuristic device to evaluate urbanist participation. Concomitantly, to understand the nature of the power relations involved in the deliberative forum, the study employed a discourse theory perspective after Laclau and Mouffe (2001). Thus, power was understood as relational and imbricated within all social relations, while conflict was conceived of as an indicator of power. The study found that the urbanist discourse, as a hegemonic project, had a significant effect on the nature of the participatory processes. In disseminating and instituting a particular vision for urban sustainability, the urbanist participatory process was found to be instrumental to realising the urbanist vision in each locality. As such, the cases studied displayed a thin commitment to democracy. Moreover, the discursive constructions of concepts of community, representation, consensus and participation evident in the cases, exposed a unified and homogeneous understanding of social groups. Consequently, the complexity of power relations and conflict inherent in the processes were bracketed, resulting in the exclusion of certain perspectives. Nevertheless, the study illustrated the value in understanding the inherently antagonistic nature of the public sphere for both research and practice. The study supported emerging claims for a democratic politics in which antagonism is transformed into agonism - a space of reciprocity and mutual respect in which contestations over meanings can be articulated. In the cases, the participatory space allowed participants to challenge the hegemonic nature of the dominant discourses. Therefore, the thesis argues for two important ways to rethink power in both theory and in practice. First, there must be a willingness to engage with conflict and power. Second, there must be an interrogation of claims to unity or collectivity. Understanding the public sphere as inherently antagonistic, heterogeneous, and criss-crossed with complex power relations potentially provides conditions in which hegemonic forces can be contested. An agonistic politics has the potential to facilitate the open contestation of different knowledges and transform the dominant power relations such that an enhanced democracy can ensue.

<p>I större städer är det vanligare med stress, oro och ångest. Av den anledningen fanns det skäl att tro att individer i storstäder skiljde sig från individer på landsbygden även gällande annan psykisk ohälsa. Studiens syfte var att undersöka om det fanns någon skillnad i ungdomars självrapporterade ätbeteende respektive kroppsuppfattning beroende på urbanisationsgrad, kön och BMI. Deltagarna i undersökningen var 140 gymnasieelever indelade i två grupper, storstad och tätort, utifrån urbanisationsgrad. Undersökningsmaterialet bestod främst av The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), några frågor från Eating Disorder Inventory-2 samt Figure Rating Scale. Resultaten visade att det inte fanns någon skillnad i ungdomars ätbeteende respektive kroppsuppfattning beroende på urbanisationsgrad, men däremot beroende på kön och BMI.</p>

Climatic and geographic events such as glaciations, island formation, river formation, and urbanization strongly affect habitat specialist species. By contrast, it is traditionally assumed that these events have little effect on habitat generalists but few studies have tested this assumption. In this study I sought to identify the effects of historic and contemporary biogeographic events on the genetic structure of a habitat generalist, the cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus). This species is distributed throughout the southeastern United States, a region that has experienced dramatic geographic changes associated with both historic Pleistocene glacial cycles, as well as contemporary anthropogenic forces. In analyzing the genetic structuring in this species I took a telescopic approach, beginning with the patterns of variation throughout the species range from a phylogenetic standpoint. Using mitochondrial sequence data I identified three reciprocally monophyletic clades of the cotton mouse, a southeastern, northeaster, and western clade. Among these clades I identified eight distinct subspecies, four of which had previously not been identified using morphological characters. Of the four previously identified subspecies, this study resulted in a restructuring of the range of all except the Key Largo cotton mouse, which is restricted to northern Key Largo Florida. Secondly, I employed phylogeographic methods to examine the genetic patterns of the cotton mouse in a geographic context. Phylogeographic breaks in the cotton mouse are largely consistent with those observed in other taxa distributed throughout the southeastern United States. Geographic structuring in this species shows deep patterns associated with glacial maxima and minima of the Pleistocene period. Many of these patterns are maintained by contemporary geographic barriers to gene flow. Thirdly, I identified geographic structuring of genetic variation at a regional and local level. This structuring is partially due to the cotton mouse’s limited dispersal ability but is strengthened and reinforced by naturally occurring contemporary barriers to gene flow and contemporary anthropogenic forces which serve to limit dispersal in this species. Finally, I determined that urbanization has a dramatic negative effect on gene flow and genetic variation in this species on a local scale. Over a twenty year period populations in urban areas experienced a marked decrease in genetic variation while populations in non-urban areas experienced an increase in variation. During this time period, gene flow was effectively cut off among populations that had previously been panmictic. This study demonstrates that small mammal habitat generalists can be affected by both historic and contemporary climatic and geographic events at multiple geographic scales. These effects range from large scale geographic structuring throughout the species’ range to fine scale structuring associated with contemporary anthropogenic forces.

I större städer är det vanligare med stress, oro och ångest. Av den anledningen fanns det skäl att tro att individer i storstäder skiljde sig från individer på landsbygden även gällande annan psykisk ohälsa. Studiens syfte var att undersöka om det fanns någon skillnad i ungdomars självrapporterade ätbeteende respektive kroppsuppfattning beroende på urbanisationsgrad, kön och BMI. Deltagarna i undersökningen var 140 gymnasieelever indelade i två grupper, storstad och tätort, utifrån urbanisationsgrad. Undersökningsmaterialet bestod främst av The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), några frågor från Eating Disorder Inventory-2 samt Figure Rating Scale. Resultaten visade att det inte fanns någon skillnad i ungdomars ätbeteende respektive kroppsuppfattning beroende på urbanisationsgrad, men däremot beroende på kön och BMI.

The purpose of this study is to assess how inhabitants of the Lidköping community value or perceive their surrounding in relation to urban planning, specifically the new Hamnstaden urban development. This perception was collected as data mainly through photos, conceived here as visual ethnography, combined with written responses. As the trend of urbanization continues to grow around the world, who or what is determining how cities are built? What elements of our urban environments do we value, and how do we measure these values? Many of the current trends with urban development are inconsistent with sustainable development and new perspectives on the construction of our cities are required to make cities more sustainable. This research uses a qualitative research approach in a case study in an urban development project in Lidköping to attempt to address some of these questions. The results are very diverse, but the highest-valued elements according to the participants were green space, old buildings, pedestrian space, public art, and cafes.

This dissertation attempts to examine the effect of urbanization on poverty reduction outcomes by considering various dimensions of poverty and channels of reducing poverty. First, we develop a theoretical model in order to infer a relationship between urbanization and poverty reduction outcomes. Specifically, it shows an optimal level of urbanization to properly allocate basic public infrastructure and promote pro-poor growth. Second, we conduct empirical analysis on international data to examine the testable hypotheses that are derived from the theoretical model. Further, we explore the “channeled effects” of urbanization on basic education and health by the IV estimation and on productivity by the dynamic panel GMM estimation. As the theoretical model suggests, our results exhibit the statistically significant relationship in a non-linear form between urbanization and poverty. In addition, we explore the impact of urbanization on poverty reduction outcomes in different regions in order to see the various magnitudes of urbanization effects among regions.

Aquesta tesi explora el creixement regional desigual, el desenvolupament de la xarxa urbana i l'evolució dels ferrocarrils Als Balcans, una de les regions més diverses i turbulentes d'Europa. Els Estats inclosos en l'estudi són Albània, Bòsnia i Hercegovina, Bulgària, Croàcia, Grècia, Macedònia, Montenegro, Romania, Sèrbia, Eslovènia i Kosovo. Durant els segles XIX i XX, els Estats dels Balcans es van sotmetre a diverses transformacions polítiques radicals que van alterar profundament el seu desenvolupament socioeconòmic. La hipòtesi de l'estudi és que aquests canvis també van afectar a la geografia econòmica i la distribució espacial de la població a la regió. Per això, endinsar-se en la història moderna dels Estats dels Balcans és una oportunitat valuosa per estudiar els principals determinants dels desequilibris en el creixement regional. Les correlacions entre els esdeveniments polítics i el desenvolupament territorial il·lustren i s'analitzen a través de la base de dades especialment creada per a aquest estudi. La base inclou informació històrica i geogràfica de transport: com la modificació de les fronteres nacionals i regionals, i el desenvolupament de la xarxa ferroviària, i dades socioeconòmiques com ara: l'evolució de les taxes d'urbanització i la densitat a nivell regional i el creixement de les ciutats. La creació de la base de dades permet l'establiment d'una visió integrada, a llarg termini sobre el desenvolupament espacial de la regió i facilita l'anàlisi dels canvis regionals i ajustaments espacials a finals del segle XIX i XX. L'anàlisi ofereix observacions importants sobre el mecanisme de formació de la geografia econòmica dels estats en construcció o en transició. La tesi s'estructura en cinc capítols escrits en forma d'articles. Els tres primers capítols ofereixen estudis nacionals sobre el desenvolupament regional i urbà de Bulgària, Romania i l'ex-Iugoslàvia i els seus estats successors en els últims 100-130 anys. Es van posar de manifest les notables similituds en la formació espacial de les noves economies nacionals després de la dissolució de l'Imperi Austro-hongarès i l'Imperi Otomà. El quart capítol analitza l'evolució espacial de tota la península durant el segle XX. I l'últim capítol es centra en la transformació estructural de l'economia de Bulgària. En general, l'experiència dels Balcans il.lustra com, en els Estats de recent creació o en procés de formació amb una economia preindustrial, les institucions polítiques juguen un paper important en la determinació del desenvolupament i les tendències de la desigualtat regional. En general, en els estats balcànics subdesenvolupats i majoritàriament centralitzats, la iniciativa privada ha jugat un paper secundari. Les fronteres polítiques i el marc institucional han estat els principals determinants sobre les desigualtats en el creixement regional. Aquesta conclusió es veu confirmada per les dades sobre els sectors d'ocupació de Bulgària. Els governs van ser capaços d'influir de manera significativa en el desenvolupament regional, mitjançant inversions relativament petites en la infraestructura del transport que van tenir importants efectes a llarg termini a causa de l'efecte dels rendiments creixents. Els petits avantatges durant el període pre-industrial, en forma d'importància política i administrativa o accés ferroviari, van tenir efectes duradors sobre la geografia econòmica. Més tard, les transformacions econòmiques i polítiques van tenir menor efecte sobre la geografia econòmica de les nacions balcàniques perquè els beneficiaris del creixement econòmic van ser principalment les ciutats i les regions ja desenvolupades. . / Esta tesis explora el crecimiento desigual regional, el desarrollo de la red urbana y la evolución de los ferrocarriles en los Balcanes, una de las regiones más diversas y turbulentas de Europa. Los países incluidos en el estudio son Albania, Bosnia y Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croacia, Grecia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Rumania, Serbia, Eslovenia y Kosovo. Durante los siglos XIX y XX, estos estados se sometieron a varias transformaciones políticas radicales que alteraron profundamente su desarrollo socioeconómico. La hipótesis del estudio es que estos cambios también afectaron a la geografía económica y la distribución espacial de la población en la región. Por ello, historia moderna de los Estados de los Balcanes es una oportunidad valiosa para estudiar los principales determinantes de los desequilibrios en el crecimiento regional. Las correlaciones entre los acontecimientos políticos y de desarrollo territorial se ilustran y analizan a través de lo creado especialmente para este estudio base de datos. La base incluye información histórica y geográfica de transporte: como la modificación de las fronteras nacionales y regionales, y el desarrollo de la red ferroviaria, y datos socio-económicos tales como: la evolución de las tasas de urbanización y la densidad a nivel regional y el crecimiento de las ciudades. La creación de la base de datos permite el establecimiento de una visión integrada, a largo plazo sobre el desarrollo espacial de la región y facilita el análisis de los cambios regionales y ajustes espaciales a finales del siglo XIX y XX. El análisis ofrece observaciones importantes sobre el mecanismo de formación de la geografía económica de los estados en construcción o en transición. La tesis se estructura en cinco capítulos escritos en forma de artículos. Los tres primeros capítulos ofrecen estudios nacionales sobre el desarrollo regional y urbano de Bulgaria, Rumania y la ex Yugoslavia. Se puso de manifiesto las notables similitudes en la formación espacial de las nuevas economías nacionales después de la disolución del Imperio Austro-Hungría y el Imperio Otomano. El cuarto capítulo analiza la evolución espacial de toda la península durante el siglo XX. Y el último capítulo se centra en la transformación estructural de la economía de Bulgaria. La experiencia de los Balcanes ilustra cómo, en los estados de reciente creación o en proceso de formación con una economía preindustrial, las instituciones políticas juegan un papel importante en la determinación del desarrollo y las tendencias de la desigualdad regional. En general, en los estados balcánicos subdesarrollados y mayoritariamente centralizados, la iniciativa privada ha jugado un papel secundario. Las fronteras políticas y el marco institucional han sido los principales determinantes sobre las desigualdades en el crecimiento regional. Esta conclusión se ve confirmada por los datos sobre los sectores de ocupación de Bulgaria. Los gobiernos fueron capaces de influir de manera significativa en el desarrollo regional, mediante inversiones relativamente pequeñas en la infraestructura del transporte que tuvieron importantes efectos a largo plazo debido al efecto de los rendimientos crecientes. Las pequeñas ventajas iniciales durante el período pre-industrial, en la forma de importancia política y administrativa o acceso ferroviario, tuvieron efectos duraderos sobre la geografía económica. Más tarde, las transformaciones económicas y políticas tuvieron menor efecto sobre la geografía económica de las naciones balcánicas porque los beneficiarios del crecimiento económico fueron principalmente las ciudades y las regiones ya desarrolladas. / This thesis explores the uneven regional growth, the development of the urban network and the evolution of the railroads in the Balkans- one of the most diverse and turbulent regions of Europe. The states included in the study are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia and Kosovo. During the 19th and 20th centuries, these states underwent several radical political transformations that altered profoundly their socioeconomic development. The hypothesis of the current study is that these changes also affected the economic geography and the spatial distribution of the population in the region, and therefore the modern history of the Balkans provides a valuable opportunity to study the main determinants for the uneven regional growth. The correlations between political events and spatial development are illustrated and analyzed with the use of the created for the purposes of the study database. It includes historical geographical and transport information: like the changes to the national and regional borders, and the development of the railway network, and socioeconomic data: such as the evolution of urbanization and density rates at regional level, and the growth of the cities. The final result is a database with internationally comparable historical and geographical information covering the entire Balkan Peninsula, which therefore permits, for the first time, the establishment of an integrated, long run vision over the spatial development of the states in the peninsula. The thesis is organized into five chapters written in the form of articles. The first three chapters present national studies of the regional and urban development of Bulgaria, Romania and former Yugoslavia during the last 100-130 years. The results revealed remarkable similarities in the spatial formation of the new national economies after the dissolutions of Austro-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The fourth chapter explores the spatial trends of the entire peninsula during the 20th century. The last chapter focuses on the structural transformation of the Bulgarian economy. Overall, the experience of the Balkans illustrates how, in newly established pre-industrial states or in those in the process of formation, political institutions can play a major role in determining the trends of the spatial inequality. By and large, in the underdeveloped and predominantly centralized Balkans, private initiative has played lesser role and political borders and the institutional framework have been the main determinants for the uneven regional growth. The governments were able to influence significantly the regional development; by making relatively small investments in transport infrastructure which had significant effects in long run due to the self-enforcing nature of increasing returns. The small initial advantages during the preindustrial period, in the form of political and administrative importance or railway access, had a lasting effect over the economic geography. Later economic and political transformations were followed by a visible increase of the regional and spatial disparities; however they had lesser effect on the economic geography of the Balkan nations, as the principal benefiters of the economic growth were the already developed cities and regions.

Human-dominated landscapes often have habitat loss and fragmentation. These characteristics described at the landscape scale, called landscape elements, influence species diversity and distribution. These landscape elements include such descriptions as the amount of habitat in the landscape and the degree of fragmentation of the habitat. "Optimization of landscape pattern" studies which landscape elements will maximize species diversity and/or distribution. Some general conclusions have emerged from this research. For example, for some bird species the size of the habitat patch in which a species nests has been found to be more important than landscape variables. However, preliminary research suggested that landscape elements such as the matrix are important urban areas. My study addressed this problem by asking: which elements of the landscape are most important for predicting avian species richness and abundance in the Greater Toronto Area? A literature review revealed a number of variables that have been found to influence bird species diversity within a landscape: area of habitat in which the species nests, amount of habitat within the landscape, degree of fragmentation, vegetation characteristics of the habitat patch, and area within the landscape deemed urban in municipal land-use designations (amount of urbanization). From this literature, I formulated four hypotheses describing the most important variables for avian diversity: (1) the area of the habitat patch is most important, (2) only variables describing the habitat patch itself are important, (3) the area of the habitat patch is important, but landscape variables should also be considered and (4) urbanization is most important. These hypotheses were considered competing explanations of bird species diversity at the landscape scale. <br /><br /> A database of breeding bird data and landscape information, in a geographic information system platform, was used to investigate the comparative strength of the competing hypotheses for the Greater Toronto Area. A mathematical expression with a Poisson model format was created to represent each hypothesis. The model selection technique based on Kullback-Leibler information using the Akaike Information Criterion was deemed most appropriate for the comparison of the models. Four separate Poisson model competitions were completed using two habitat types and two response variables: species richness and total abundance. In three of the four competitions, the best model included the habitat area and the amount of urbanization in the landscape. In the forth competition, this model was considered as strong as another model which included habitat area, amount of habitat in the landscape and degree of fragmentation. The results from the model competition support the hypothesis that habitat area is important, but landscape variables must also be considered to explain avian richness and total abundance. It appears that maintaining native bird biodiversity in the Greater Toronto Area should focus on preserving and possibly increasing habitat area and decreasing adjacent urbanization. Exploration of the best model in the forest analysis with the richness response variable found that a 10% increase in habitat area cause approximately a 10% increase in species richness, and a 10% increase in urban area caused approximately a 20% decrease in species richness. Consequently, current natural heritage planning in Ontario should consider urban development as an important negative effect on native birds.