The purpose of this study was to investigate female crime and victimization based on how this is presented in autobiographies of female criminals with a focus on gender structures and the role men play in women’s crime and victimization. The study was based on autobiographies of three Swedish female criminals on which themes corresponding to the purpose of the study were identified. The results were analyzed on the basis of theories of hegemonic masculinity, gender systems and socialist feminism and compared with previous research. The study showed that gender structures clearly appear in the autobiographies. Men’s power and dominance over women was made visible, not least through prostitution, but also through other violations, coersion, abuse and rape, women were victimized, both in childhood and in adulthood. Men were also shown in various ways to influence women to start committing crimes.

The primary purpose of this research was to examine the long-term relations between peer victimization and internalizing symptoms (anxiety and depression) in middle school children. Furthermore, this study intended to determine the potential roles of self-worth, self-acceptance, and social supports in moderating or mediating these proposed relations. At time one, 280 sixth grade students participated and at follow up, 77 eighth grade children were participants. All children were from the same public middle school and completed self-report measures representing the constructs previously described. Reported levels of peer victimization were found to be similar to those reported in previous studies. Significant concurrent correlations were found between the sixth grade predictor variables (victimization, self-worth, social acceptance, social supports). Sixth grade reported peer victimization was also significantly associated with eighth grade depression for boys and eighth grade social anxiety for girls. Tests of mediation supported the role of global self-worth for boys and social acceptance for girls. Teacher support served a significant moderating role for boys' peer victimization-internalizing symptom (depression and social anxiety) relation. In both cases, boys reported fewer internalizing symptoms when peer victimization was low and teacher support was high. Findings are integrated into the literature regarding peer victimization and internalizing difficulties. / Ph. D.

The present study aimed to: (1) Characterize markers of reward sensitivity during periods of social stress using a well validated social feedback paradigm; (2) Evaluate clinical relations between reward markers and anhedonia; and (3) Investigate if elevated levels of baseline prior exposure to stress (i.e., peer victimization) are associated with the degree of ventral striatum suppression and anhedonia symptoms in a social stress context. A total of 29 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 17 years old (Mage = 15.31; SD = 1.51; 55.2% cisgender girls) participated in the present study. Participants were asked to complete a semi-structured interview; fill out self-report questionnaires regarding social anxiety, stress, depression, and anhedonia; and complete a magnetic resonance imaging scan while playing the Island Getaway task. Ventral striatum (VS) BOLD signal activation estimates were then extracted during discrete phases of the game (e.g., anticipation of social feedback and outcome of social feedback) and statistically compared within-subjects via paired samples t-tests and correlated to social anxiety measures. Additionally, regression analyses assessed the effect of VS activation on anhedonia as well as the associative effect of peer victimization on VS activation and anhedonia. Results revealed that when in the presence of social stress (defined as the potential for negative feedback), socially anxious adolescents demonstrated significantly suppressed VS activation relative to baseline when anticipating feedback. Additionally, results indicated that the degree of reduced VS activation during anticipation was correlated to total changes in anhedonia severity across the task. Lastly, results demonstrated that overt peer victimization is a significant predictor of suppressed VS activation during anticipation of social feedback, but not during social outcomes. Taken together, these results identify potentially novel mechanisms associated with anhedonia and blunted reward processing in socially anxious youth that could be improved via interventions that target positive-valence systems. / Doctor of Philosophy / Socially anxious teens may be at a heightened risk for developing anhedonia – which means that they are showing a significant lack of interest in things they used to find interesting or rewarding. This is problematic, because the presence of anhedonia is associated with not doing as well in therapy and even with higher rates of suicide attempt. One area that may be linked to the development of anhedonia in socially anxious teens is social stress induced disrupted reward processing in certain regions of the brain that generally activate when people anticipate a reward. Despite this, there is very little research on the development of anhedonia is socially anxious teens and even less that focuses on biological and behavioral experiences of reward processing when under social stress. This study examines this potential stress-to-anhedonia pipeline by looking at a key region of the brain, called the ventral striatum, to see if social stress does disrupt reward processing in socially anxious teens, and, if so, if this disrupted reward processing is related to anhedonia. Through evaluating a total of 29 socially anxious teens who underwent a social stress task while completing brain scanning, the present study demonstrated evidence for diminished brain activation in the ventral striatum when anticipating rewards. Additionally, the present study showed that reduced brain activation in the ventral striatum was associated with changes in anhedonia severity. Lastly, results from this study indicated that peer victimization (or bullying) was a significant predictor of diminished brain activation in the ventral striatum. Taken together, these results identify potentially new markers associated with anhedonia and blunted reward processing in socially anxious youth that could be improved via interventions.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationships between physical and emotional peer victimization, parental and peer support and depressive symptoms. The moderating role of parental and peer support and gender differences in such moderation were the focus of the study in examining the association between peer victimization forms and depressive symptoms. Two hundred and sixty one youths (ages 10-14) completed self report measures of parental and peer support and depressive symptoms and were interviewed about their victimization experiences. Physical victimization rates were higher for boys whereas girls reported higher emotional victimization experiences and higher peer support than boys did. Correlations indicated that the experience of physical and emotional victimization by peer is linked to depressive symptoms. For boys, but not for girls, a significant moderation effect indicated that physical victimization was significantly related to depressive symptoms among youths with low peer support whereas physical victimization was not related to depressive symptoms among youths with high peer support. There were significant main effects of parental and peer support for both genders suggesting the importance of such support against depressive symptoms. The study's findings contribute to the literature regarding peer victimization's effects on mental health by illustrating the beneficial effect of parent and peer support during adolescence. / Master of Science

Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by an increase in risk taking. However, this is not always adverse, as risks can be classified as both positive and negative. Adolescence is also a period of time in which social relationships, particularly among peers, become increasingly salient, and as such, peer-related factors are often connected to risk-taking in adolescence. While peer relationships can provide adolescents with social support, they can also be harmful when they manifest in peer victimization. Thus, this study sought to understand the associations between positive and negative risk taking and relational and physical victimization in adolescence and young adulthood. Data were collected from 167 adolescents across five time points, approximately one year apart. Adolescents completed questionnaires that assessed their risk-taking perceptions and likelihood as well as peer victimization experiences. Results demonstrated that there were no significant cross-construct associations between positive and negative risk-taking perception and relational and physical peer victimization across adolescence. However, additional analyses examining positive and negative socially-related risk taking revealed a significant association between positive socially-related risk perception and relational victimization such that higher initial levels of positive socially-related risk perception predicted a slower decline in relational victimization across adolescence. Results also showed that overall, higher levels of risk-taking perception in adolescence predicted decreased levels of risk-taking likelihood in young adulthood, and that higher initial levels of physical and relational victimization in adolescence predicted higher levels of positive and negative risk-taking likelihood in young adulthood, respectively. Findings highlight the connection between peer victimization and positive and negative risk perception in adolescence, the potential risk-taking outcomes in young adulthood resulting from peer victimization experiences and risk-taking perception in adolescence, and most importantly, the differential roles of positive and negative risk taking in adolescence and young adulthood. / M.S. / Adolescence is a time in development where risk taking increases. However, this is not always adverse, as risks can be classified as both positive and negative. Adolescence is also a time in which peer relationships become especially important, and as such, peer-related factors are often connected to risk-taking in adolescence. While peer relationships can provide adolescents with social support, they can also be harmful when they result in peer victimization. Thus, this study sought to understand the associations between positive and negative risk taking and relational and physical victimization in adolescence and young adulthood. Data were collected from 167 adolescents across five time points, approximately one year apart. Adolescents completed questionnaires that assessed their risk-taking perceptions and likelihood as well as peer victimization experiences. Results demonstrated that there were no significant associations between positive and negative risk-taking perception and relational and physical peer victimization across adolescence. However, additional analyses examining positive and negative socially-related risk taking revealed a significant association between positive socially- related risk perception and relational victimization such that higher initial levels of positive socially-related risk perception predicted a slower decline in relational victimization across adolescence. Results also showed that overall, higher levels of risk-taking perception in adolescence predicted decreased levels of risk-taking likelihood in young adulthood, and that higher initial levels of physical and relational victimization in adolescence predicted higher levels of positive and negative risk-taking likelihood in young adulthood, respectively.

Sexual victimization is an act of interpersonal violence that affects the lives of many college women. Such incidents are often characterized by women as traumatic experiences which also result forms of psychological distress, with the most common being posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The relationship between sexual victimization and PTSD is strengthened by revictimization. Although perceived social support has been shown to play a protective role in the sexual victimizationâ ³psychological distress relationship, there is also evidence that the moderating effect of perceived social support diminishes with chronic distress. Therefore, the current study assumed that there would be a changing role of perceived social support, from a moderator to a mediator, in the relationship between sexual victimization and PTSD. Three hundred college females (mean age 19) completed questionnaires related to sexual victimization experiences, perceived social support, and PTSD symptoms in addition to other personality and socio-demographic factors. The hypotheses were not supported. However, as with previous findings, the results showed that sexual victimization significantly predicted PTSD symptom severity. / Master of Science

The primary purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationships among peer victimization, global self-worth, social support, and internalizing behaviors (e.g., anxiety, social anxiety, and depression). Of particular interest were the potential mediating and moderating roles of global self-worth and social support in the anticipated relationships between peer victimization and internalizing symptoms. All sixth grade children from a public middle school completed self-report measures representing the constructs previously described. Reported levels of peer victimization were found to be similar to those reported in previous studies. In addition, significant associations were found among all variables of interest, with the exception of social support and total anxiety. Global self-worth was found to partially mediate the peer victimization-social anxiety and peer victimization-depression relationships. These findings suggest that victimization experiences may negatively influence children's views of themselves and help explain the elevated levels of depression and social anxiety also reported by them. Furthermore, global self-worth moderated the peer victimization-total anxiety relationship, such that children with higher global self-worth reported fewer total anxiety symptoms than children with lower global self-worth. However, analyses failed to support the role of social support as either a mediator or moderator in the relationships examined. Findings are integrated into the literature regarding peer victimization and internalizing symptomology. / Master of Science

The current dissertation investigated sexual assault victimization in virtual worlds – environments, where individuals engage through avatars, offering a deep level of immersion and interactivity. As the usage of these virtual spaces grows, so does the concern for negative experiences that mirror the sexual assault encountered in the physical world. Despite this, there is a notable gap in the quantitative analysis of virtual sexual assault (VSA) victimization. This research aimed to fill this void by exploring the prevalence of VSA victimization over the previous year and identifying potential predictors of VSA victimization through the lens of cyberlifestyle-routine activity theory. To achieve this, the current research recruited 829 English-speaking adult participants, who used/have used virtual worlds via Mechanical Turk (MTurk) using CloudResearch, which uses the sample population within MTurk but produces better-quality data. The study found that 46.44% of participants reported at least one instance of VSA victimization. VSA behaviors were categorized into unwanted sexual advances, image-based sexual abuse, and non-consensual sexual avatar manipulation. Unwanted sexual advances were reported by 35.71% of participants, image-based sexual abuse by 33.29%, and non-consensual sexual avatar manipulation by 27.99%. Applying CLRAT, the study found that higher levels of online exposure, online proximity, online deviant lifestyle, and lower levels of online guardianship were correlated with increased VSA victimization. However, the study noted that traditional guardianship concepts needed refinement for virtual environments, as mere vigilance without active intervention was insufficient to prevent victimization. Limitations, suggestions for future studies, and implications are provided based on these findings.

Youth violence has garnered the attention of researchers and policy makers alike, because of the unique risk factors associated with victimization and the poor physical, mental, and educational outcomes that stem from such experiences. In particular, sexual minority youth--those who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual or who have sexual contact with persons of the same or both sexes (CDC, 2016)--are among those most at risk for victimization. Research that highlights and addresses these issues is crucial. This study utilizes the 2013 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) data in order to investigate different forms of victimization and their consequences in lesbian, gay, bisexual and questioning (LGBQ) youth. Drawing from a sample of 12,642 9th-12th grade youth, this study investigates the prevalence of bullying, homophobic bullying, dating violence and sexual assault, as well their effects on school avoidance, poor mental health, and substance use outcomes. Results reveal that differences do, in fact, exist between sexual minority and heterosexual youth, where LGBQ youth experience higher rates of every type of victimization, and are more likely to report school avoidance, depression, suicidality, and substance use. Furthermore, this study also investigates the intersections of sexual orientation and gender, and finds that females who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or questioning are most at risk for every type of victimization. Findings highlight the need for recognition of the importance of sexual orientation and gender in youth victimization, and the need for policy that explicitly outlines protections for sexual minority youth within the school environment, as well as services extended to victims of IPV. / Ph. D. / Youth violence is a problem throughout the United States, and is a widely researched topic because of the risk factors linked to victimization. In particular, sexual minority youth—those who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual or who have sexual contact with persons of the same or both sexes (CDC, 2016)— are among those most at risk for youth violence. This study used the 2013 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) data in order to investigate different forms of youth violence victimization and their consequences among lesbian, gay, bisexual and questioning (LGBQ) youth. Drawing from a sample of 12,642 9th-12th graders, this study investigates bullying, homophobic bullying, dating violence and sexual assault, as well their effects on school avoidance, poor mental health, and substance use outcomes. Results show that differences do, in fact, exist between sexual minority and heterosexual youth, where LGBQ youth experience higher rates of every type of victimization, and are also more likely to report school avoidance, depression, suicidality, and substance use. Furthermore, this study also investigates sexual orientation and gender, and finds that females who identify as LGBQ are most at risk for every type of victimization. These findings highlight the need for recognition of the important role that sexual orientation and gender plays in youth victimization, as well as the need for school policy that explicitly outlines protections for these youth.

L’objectif de la recherche est de comparer une traduction d’un questionnaire américain, le Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) avec un questionnaire de victimisation préexistant au Canada, l’Enquête Sociale Générale (ESG). À l’aide d’une base de données formée par le JVQ en 2009, une comparaison a été conduite entre les victimisations de 783 jeunes âgés entre 15 et 17 ans afin de les comparer avec les victimisations de 631 jeunes âgés entre 15 et 17 ans de la base de données de l’ESG de 2009. Sur la majorité des points de comparaison établis entre les deux questionnaires, il existe des différences significatives entre les résultats obtenus par le JVQ et l’ESG. Pour les comparaisons des taux de victimisation des 12 derniers mois, 3 des 8 taux de victimisation comparés étaient similaires. Pour les comparaisons des taux de victimisation à vie, les 7 taux comparés étaient significativement différents. Cependant, il existe des explications méthodologiques et échantillonnales afin de rendre compte de ces différences. Les résultats indiquent qu’avec les différences inhérentes aux deux questionnaires, les échantillons des 15 à 17 ans présentent des taux relativement différents. Il est possible de valider l’utilisation du JVQ sur la population afin de recueillir des informations fiables sur la victimisation. Toutefois, en comparant les différentes questions individuellement, il est possible d’apporter des améliorations aux deux questionnaires utilisés. / The objective of the research is to compare a translation of an American questionnaire, the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) with a pre-existing victimization questionnaire in Canada, the General Social Survey (GSS). With the help of a database formed by using the JVQ in 2009, a comparison was conducted with victimization of 783 adolescents aged between 15 and 17 years old in order to compare these results with the victimization of 631 adolescents aged between 15 and 17 years old from the GSS database of 2009. For the majority of the comparisons established between the two questionnaires, there are significant differences between the victimization found by the JVQ and the GSS. For the comparison concerning the victimization rate for the last 12 month, 3 out of 8 rates compared were similar. For the comparison of lifetime victimization rates the 7 rates compared were significantly different. However, methodological and sample differences can explain some of the difference found. Results indicate that despite inherent differences to both questionnaires, 15-17 samples present relatively similar victimisation rate. It is possible to validate the use of the JVQ on the population in order to gather reliable information on juvenile victimisation. Nevertheless when comparing the two surveys, it is possible to bring improvement on both questionnaires.