Through immersive stereoscopic displays and natural user interfaces, virtual reality (VR) is capable of offering the user a sense of presence in the virtual space, and has been long expected to revolutionize how people interact with virtual content in various application scenarios. However, with many technical challenges solved over the last three decades to bring low cost and high fidelity to VR experiences, we still do not see VR technology used frequently in many seemingly suitable applications. Part of this is due to the lack of expressiveness and efficiency of traditional “simple and reality-based� 3D user interfaces (3DUIs). The challenge is especially obvious when complex interaction tasks with diverse requirements are involved, such as editing virtual objects from multiple scales, angles, perspectives, reference frames, and dimensions. A common approach to overcome such problems is through hybrid user interface (HUI) systems that combine complementary interface elements to leverage their strengths. Based on this method, the first contribution of this dissertation is the proposal of Force Extension, an interaction technique that seamlessly integrates position-controlled touch and rate-controlled force input for efficient multi-touch interaction in virtual environments. Using carefully designed mapping functions, it is capable of offering fluid transitions between the two contexts, as well as simulating shear force input realistically for multi-touch gestures. The second contribution extends the HUI concept into immersive VR by introducing a Hybrid Virtual Environment (HVE) level editing system that combines a tablet and a Head-Mounted Display (HMD). The HVE system improves user performance and experience in complex high-level world editing tasks by using a “World-In-Miniature� and 2D GUI rendered on a multi-touch tablet device to compensate for the interaction limitations of a traditional HMD- and wand-based VR system. The concept of Interaction Context (IC) is introduced to explain the relationship between tablet interaction and the immersive interaction, and four coordination mechanisms are proposed to keep the perceptual, functional, and cognitive flow continuous during IC transitions. To offer intuitive and realistic interaction experiences, most immersive 3DUIs are centered on the user’s virtual avatar, and obey the same physics rules of the real world. However, this design paradigm also employs unnecessary limitations that hinders the performance of certain tasks, such as selecting objects in cluttered space, manipulating objects in six degrees of freedom, and inspecting remote spaces. The third contribution of this dissertation proposes the Object Impersonation technique, which breaks the common assumption that one can only immerse in the VE from a single avatar, and allows the user to impersonate objects in the VE and interact from their perspectives and reference frames. This hybrid solution of avatar- and object-based interaction blurs the line between travel and object selection, creating a unique cross-task interaction experience in the immersive environment. Many traditional 3DUIs in immersive VR use simple and intuitive interaction paradigms derived from real world metaphors. But they can be just as limiting and ineffective as in the real world. Using the coordinated HUI or HVE systems presented in this dissertation, one can benefit from the complementary advantages of multiple heterogeneous interfaces (Force Extension), VE representations (HVE Level Editor), and interaction techniques (Object Impersonation). This advances traditional 3D interaction into the more powerful hybrid space, and allows future VR systems to be applied in more application scenarios to provide not only presence, but also improved productivity in people’s everyday tasks.

Masters Research - Master of Design (Research) / This study explores the development of patterns for the visual design of interface elements within a virtual environment. The document will outline the process for this study and will formalise an approach for future research. Commonly, existing interface systems allow for the representation of data storage, manipulation and navigation via two dimensional structures. With the emergence of virtual reality systems in medicine, military and entertainment there becomes a need to transform this limited two dimensional representation into one that best facilitates the new environment. The proposed model will incorporate application menu systems and the modes of manipulation of data in specific applications. The framework for a prototype of the interface has been produced as well as a structure for assessment via user interaction and response. This framework will provide a template for understanding the base interaction with the operating system, that is, how to organise files and initiate software, as well as the operation of a simulated software package. If the prototype were built then it would be viewed as a virtual environment and the interaction could take place via the use of either mouse (or similar prop) or data-glove. Future study could include the actual building of each of the interface variations and putting the series of users through the prescribed experiment procedure. Applications of an interface resulting from testing such as this could be found within a range of fields. Military training currently makes use of virtual simulation and this could provide access to information needed within operational procedures. Similar technologies could be adapted for pilot control systems within a visor display. For medical research, where virtual surgical techniques are being used, information could be accessed within the operating environment that had otherwise been contained in adjacent systems outside immediate reach. Real world application of these models would be limited at this time by the use of the appropriate computing power, however, the future use of this study could have broader application within the development of game technology, internet access and data mining. The proposed experiment requires the development of interface variations based on a predefined pattern structure that informs the design of certain elements and of the tasks to be performed. The patterns included in this study form the initial set from which a library could be extended and developed upon. While these pattern definitions are crucial to the execution of the experiment, they have been presented here in Appendix A to preserve flow and readability of the document. The review of the current literature within this study covers a range of publications related to the development of virtual and augmented environment interfaces. A summation of the tools, devices, techniques and constraints which affect this area of development has been included. The review is presented to provide broad background information for the reader, building a context through which the experiment should be viewed. The purpose of this study is to provide a method through which the visual representation of an interface can be more consistently assessed. This will be achieved through the use of a pattern language for a development framework, providing interface consistency in structure and principle. This is significant to the field as currently the assessment of visual representation is conducted across projects without a consistent framework and the subsequent learning is not readily transferred across applications.

Virtual reality-based instruction such as virtual worlds, games, and simulations are becoming very popular in K-12 and higher education. Three manuscripts that report the results of investigations of these increasingly prevalent instructional media were developed for this dissertation. The purpose of the first study, a meta-analysis, was to analyze the instructional effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction when compared to the traditional methods of instruction. In addition, this study also explored selected instructional design features of the virtual learning environment that moderated the relationship between instructional method and the academic achievements. Analyses of 63 experimental or quasi-experimental studies that studied learning outcomes of virtual reality-based instruction in K-12 or higher education settings yielded a mean effect size of g = 0.47 (SE = 0.02) suggesting that virtual reality-based instruction is an effective medium of delivering instruction. Further analyses examined factors that influence its effectiveness. The purpose of the second study was to examine a model of the impact of a 3-D desktop virtual reality environment on the learner characteristics (i.e. perceptual and psychological variables) that can enhance chemistry-related learning achievements in an introductory college chemistry class. A theoretical model of the relationships of features of 3-D virtual reality environments and students' experiences in the environments to outcomes on a chemistry learning test and measures of spatial ability and self-efficacy was tested using structural equation modeling. Usability strongly mediated the relationship between 3-D virtual reality features, spatial orientation, self-efficacy, and presence. Spatial orientation and self-efficacy had a statistically significant, positive impact on the chemistry learning test. The purpose of the third study was to investigate the potential of Second Life (SL), a 3-D virtual world, to enhance undergraduate students? learning of a foundational chemistry concept, spatial ability, and self-efficacy. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group design was used. A total of 387 participants completed three assignment activities either in Second Life or using 2-D images. The difference between the scores of 3-D virtual environment-based group and the 2-D images-based group was not statistically significant for any of the measures.

Avatarer är vanligt förekommande i datorspel och används för nöjes skull men avatarer används även i seriösa spel. Rapporten undersöker hur en persons självkänsla och body image kan stärkas med hjälp av en avatar och vilka egenskaper avataren behöver ha. Undersökningen genomförs som en litteraturstudie. Slutsatsen är att det troligen går att skapa en avatar för detta ändamål, men att det är många aspekter att ta hänsyn till och att det inte är helt självklart vilka val som behöver göras. Viktigt verkar dock att användaren själv får välja sin avatar, att till exempel typen av klädsel påverkar liksom avatarens längd. Det verkar också vara en avvägning om det är bäst att skapa en avatar som liknar personen själv eller att skapa en avatar som har förmågor som personen kan se upp till för att må bättre. Vilket alternativ som är bäst varierar troligen från person till person.

Abstract The focus of this thesis is on perceivable interaction forms that can be utilised in multi-player computer games and Collaborative Virtual Environments (CVEs). Interaction forms are manifestations of user-user and user-environment interaction. These forms convey the actions of the user to others, and to oneself, during synchronous communication and interaction partially resembling face-to-face encounters in the physical world. The communication, co-ordination and collaboration difficulties in current 3D CVEs have yet to be overcome. The aim of this thesis is to conceptualise and delineate the available mutually perceivable interaction forms. The research analyses entertainment industry solutions and examines their potential as providers of design implications for CVE systems in general. Furthermore, games are used as platforms in the construction phases of the research. The research answers the problems of what interaction forms exist in multi-player games and what are their main characteristics and how to apply the understanding of possible interaction forms in order to help the design of games and professionally used CVEs? The problems are approached with conceptual analytical and constructive methods. Delineation and categorisation of various interaction forms in games and CVEs is presented. The gap between theoretical models and practical design is bridged by using several empirical cases as a constructive part of the research. The significance of this research is related to the increasingly important role of CVEs in global organisations and virtual enterprises, as well as in the everyday life of people. The communicational and functional enhancements of the virtual environments and multi-player games make the interpersonal interaction more usable and applicable in computer mediated settings. The research provides a deeper understanding of the concept of interaction forms in the context of CVEs and multi-player games. The results can be used to create more supportive, appealing and communicative applications by applying interaction models and theories in the form of rich interaction design guidelines. The main contributions of this research are the conceptual models of interaction forms and corresponding rich interaction design suggestions. The results reveal important and neglected aspects of interaction forms to the world of game and virtual environment designers. Combined with the descriptions of interaction design processes the overall outcome of the work is applicable to a wide audience designing or using computer systems that support communication, co-ordination and collaboration.

The population of English Language Learners (ELLs) globally has been increasing substantially every year. In the United States alone, adult ELLs are the fastest growing portion of learners in adult education programs (Yang, 2005). There is a significant need to improve the teaching of English to ELLs in the United States and other English-speaking dominant countries. However, for many ELLs, speaking, especially to Native English Speakers (NESs), causes considerable language anxiety, which in turn plays a vital role in hindering their language development and academic progress (Pichette, 2009; Woodrow, 2006). Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), such as simulation activities, has long been viewed as an effective approach for second-language development. The current advances in technology and rapid emergence of Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) have provided an opportunity for educators to consider conducting simulations online for ELLs to practice speaking English to NESs. Yet to date, empirical research on the effects of MUVEs on ELLs’ language development and speaking is limited (Garcia-Ruiz, Edwards, & Aquino-Santos, 2007). This study used a true experimental treatment control group repeated measures design to compare the perceived speaking anxiety levels (as measured by an anxiety scale administered per simulation activity) of 11 ELLs (5 in the control group, 6 in the experimental group) when speaking to Native English Speakers (NESs) during 10 simulation activities. Simulations in the control group were done face-to-face, while those in the experimental group were done in the MUVE of Second Life. The results of the repeated measures ANOVA revealed after the Huynh-Feldt epsilon correction, demonstrated for both groups a significant decrease in anxiety levels over time from the first simulation to the tenth and final simulation. When comparing the two groups, the results revealed a statistically significant difference, with the experimental group demonstrating a greater anxiety reduction. These results suggests that language instructors should consider including face-to-face and MUVE simulations with ELLs paired with NESs as part of their language instruction. Future investigations should investigate the use of other multi-user virtual environments and/or measure other dimensions of the ELL/NES interactions.

An experimental study at a large research university evaluated the role of image resolution on 60 participant's locomotion tasks in an interior virtual desktop wayfinding environment. Four virtual environments were developed using different resolutions for wayfinding images including high level 150 ppi, medium high level 100 ppi, medium level 75 and low level 30 ppi images. The environment was designed to accommodate forward, backward, sideways and figure 8 locomotion tasks as defined by the VEPAB. The effects of the different image resolutions on time-on-task performance scores to navigate through the environment, object-based visual attention as recorded by two eye movements - saccade and gaze fixation detections in viewing the images and the perceived usability of the computer system and virtual environment as measured by two post tests - the System Usability Scale and the Virtual Environment Presence Questionnaire were evaluated. Eye movement scores were collected with an eye tracking system that used the dark pupil method of eye analysis with a video lipstick camera. Results indicate that image resolution has a statistically (p < .05) significant effect on time-on-task performance wayfinding tasks and on object-based visual attention as indicated by gaze fixation scores. Participants fixated longer on lower resolution images, which affected their time-on-task performance. Resolution did not have a statistically significant effect on the perceived usability of the computer system or virtual environment.

Studier har påvisat att de negativa attityder som en stor del av befolkning uppvisar mot mental ohälsa är en bidragande faktor till de stigma som omger många av dessa sjukdomar. Denna uppsats ställer två frågor: hur kan en simulering av psykos konstrueras för VR och på vilket sätt kan en sådan simulering påverka attityderna gentemot tillståndet psykos. I ett försök att besvara dessa frågor byggdes en prototyp med Unity3D och Google Resonance audio. Denna prototyp användes sedan i kombination med två enkäter för att besvara frågan gällande attitydförändringar. Resultaten kom att visa att det är möjligt att konstruera en sådan simulering samt att VR som medium uppvisar potential att påverka attityden hos användaren gentemot ämnet för simulering. Som fortsättning på denna uppsats skulle framtida forskning kunna bestå framtagningen av ett ramverk för konstruerandet av simulering i VR. Framtida forskning skulle även kunna fokusera på att upprepa enkäterna med ett större antal deltagare. Detta skulle leda till ett större dataset vilket i sin tur skulle främja belysandet av subtila skillnader i de potentiella attitydförändringarna. / Studies have shown that the negative attitudes held by a substantial portion of the general public towards mental illness is a contributing factor to the stigma surrounding illnesses such as schizophrenia and psychosis. This thesis asks two questions: how to construct a psychosis simulation using VR and in what ways such a simulation can affect the attitudes towards the illness. As an attempt to answer these questions a prototype was built using Unity3D and Google Resonance audio. This prototype was then used in conjunction with two surveys in order to answer the question regarding attitudes. The results showed that building such a simulation is possible and that VR holds potential to affect participants attitudes towards the subject of simulation. To build upon this thesis, future work could consist of establishing a framework for building simulations in VR. Future work could also consist of repeating the surveys with a larger number of participants which would yield a larger data set which in turn would promote the highlighting of subtle nuances in a potential attitude change.

The intent of this thesis is to explore whether an existing spatial schema assists with learning a similar environment to the existing schema. Spatially experienced and non-experienced participants of Magic Kingdom Park learned a similar park, Disneyland Park, using a virtual environment. Participants learned the virtual environment either passively or actively. Spatially experienced participants outperformed the non-experienced participants on survey and route knowledge assessments, despite of the training method used in the virtual environment. The results suggest that the existing schema for a similar place transfers to the new environment regardless of passive or active training.

Content augmentation strategies (CAS) are instructional methods which specify the overlaying of content objects by content augmentation objects in order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction. The goals of this research were to build a comprehensive framework around CASs, determine the experimental effects of CASs in an instructional virtual environment (VE), and make recommendations regarding the employment and further study of CASs in instructional virtual environments. The VE experiment examined the effectiveness and efficiency impact of six different content augmentation strategies which overlayed different content augmentation objects onto four immersive VE scenarios. Sixty university students, 40 men and 20 women, executed three CAS-enhanced training missions and one no-CAS test mission. The task involved the recall and correct application of specific rules for three subtasks of a military helicopter landing zone scouting mission. The strategies included a no-strategy control condition, an arrow condition, an audio coaching condition, a text coaching condition, an arrow plus audio coaching condition, and an arrow plus text coaching condition. Statistical and decision analyses were conducted on the effectiveness and efficiency performance data. Statistically significant differences were found which supported the general superiority of the audio content augmentation strategy for these tasks. This dissertation may be the first use of a decision analysis approach for analyzing the results of behavioral data for instructional design decisions. The decision analysis approach used decision trees, simulation and optimization to obtain content augmentation strategy rankings. As this approach is normally used for course of action analysis and comparing alternative system configurations, the validity of this approach in this context has yet to be determined. The decision analysis approach obtained plausible and similar, but not identical recommendations to the statistical approach. The decision analysis approach may constitute a limited instantiation of a proposed optimal stimulus set instructional design model which conceptually framed the experiment. Training guideline recommendations, experimental procedure recommendations, and a comprehensive framework for future research are also presented.