Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (TTDS) is a powerful spectroscopic technique, combining pulsed broadband operation with high sensitivity coherent detection at room temperature. This thesis describes studies of terahertz surface plasmon polariton (SPP) guidance on a range of metamaterial structures using TTDS. Metamaterials are artificial media constructed from sub-wavelength dimension conducting elements which have an electromagnetic response that can be engineered by creating geometrical plasma-like resonances. In this work, high-confinement terahertz waveguiding is achieved by binding SPPs to cavity resonances which spoof the behaviour of intrinsic surface plasmon resonances found at much higher frequencies. The main aim of these studies is to investigate their properties with regard to potential applications in waveguiding and sensing. The first two chapters of this thesis describe the background to the subject. In chapter 3, the construction of a novel, flexible geometry, fibre-coupled TTDS system using hollow-core photonic crystal fibre (HC-PCF) is described. The extension of the system to include a near-field probe for evanescent field characterisation is also discussed. In chapter 4, we present the first direct observation of terahertz SPP propagation on plasmonic metamaterials consisting of copper sheets patterned with two-dimensional arrays of square copper-lined holes. Wavelength-scale field confinement is experimentally observed over an octave in frequency close to the band edge, representing a two order of magnitude increase in confinement compared to a flat metal sheet. In chapter 5, metamaterials consisting of two-dimensional arrays of coaxial apertures are shown to support two spoof plasmon modes below the band edge, enabling wavelength-scale field confinement to be experimentally realised at two distinct frequencies. In chapter 6, we present the first experimental results for terahertz SPP propagation on helical and discretely grooved cylindrical metamaterials termed metawires. In each case the results are compared with numerical simulations.

No description available.

<p>Ferroelectrics are a group of advanced electronic materialswith a wide variety of properties useful in applications suchas memory devices, resonators and filters, infrared sensors,microelectromechanical systems, and optical waveguides andmodulators. Among the oxide perovskite-structured ferroelectricthin film materials sodium potassium niobate or Na0.5K0.5NbO3(NKN) has recently emerged as one of the most promisingmaterials in microwave applications due to high dielectrictunability and low dielectric loss. This licentiate thesispresents results on growth and structural, optical, andelectrical characterization of Na0.5K0.5NbO3 thin films. Thefilms were deposited by rf-magnetron sputtering of astoichiometric, high density, ceramic Na0.5K0.5NbO3 target ontosingle crystal LaAlO3 and Al2O3, and polycrystalline Pt80Ir20substrates. By x-ray diffractometry, NKN films on c-axisoriented LaAlO3 substrates were found to grow epitaxially,whereas films on hexagonal sapphire and polycrystallinePt80Ir20 substrates were found to be preferentially (00l)oriented. Optical and waveguiding properties of theNa0.5K0.5NbO3/Al2O3 heterostructure were characterized using aprism-coupling technique. Sharp and distinguishable transversemagnetic (TM) and electric (TE) propagation modes wereobserved. The extraordinary and ordinary refractive indiceswere calculated to ne = 2.216±0.003 and no =2.247±0.002 for a 2.0 μm thick film at λ = 632.8nm. This implies a birefringence Δn = ne - no =-0.031±0.003 in the film. The ferroelectric state inNKN/Pt80Ir20 films at room temperature was indicated by apolarization loop with polarization as high as 33.4 μC/cm2at 700 kV/cm, remnant polarization of 9.9 μC/cm2 andcoercive field of 91 kV/cm. Current-voltage characteristics ofvertical Au/NKN/Pt80Ir20 capacitive cells and planar Au/NKN/LaAlO3 interdigital capacitors (IDCs) showed very goodinsulating properties, with the leakage current density for anNKN IDC on the order of 30 nA/cm2 at 400 kV/cm. Rf dielectricspectroscopy demonstrated low loss, low frequency dispersion,and high voltage tunability. At 1 MHz NKN/LaAlO3 showed adissipation factor tan δ of 0.010 and a tunability of 16.5% at 200 kV/cm. For the same structure the frequencydispersion, Δεr, between 1 kHz and 1 MHz was 8.5%.</p><p><b>Key words:</b>ferroelectrics, sodium potassium niobates,thin films, rf-magnetron sputtering, waveguiding, refractiveindex, prism coupling, dielectric tunability</p>

Ferroelectrics are a group of advanced electronic materialswith a wide variety of properties useful in applications suchas memory devices, resonators and filters, infrared sensors,microelectromechanical systems, and optical waveguides andmodulators. Among the oxide perovskite-structured ferroelectricthin film materials sodium potassium niobate or Na0.5K0.5NbO3(NKN) has recently emerged as one of the most promisingmaterials in microwave applications due to high dielectrictunability and low dielectric loss. This licentiate thesispresents results on growth and structural, optical, andelectrical characterization of Na0.5K0.5NbO3 thin films. Thefilms were deposited by rf-magnetron sputtering of astoichiometric, high density, ceramic Na0.5K0.5NbO3 target ontosingle crystal LaAlO3 and Al2O3, and polycrystalline Pt80Ir20substrates. By x-ray diffractometry, NKN films on c-axisoriented LaAlO3 substrates were found to grow epitaxially,whereas films on hexagonal sapphire and polycrystallinePt80Ir20 substrates were found to be preferentially (00l)oriented. Optical and waveguiding properties of theNa0.5K0.5NbO3/Al2O3 heterostructure were characterized using aprism-coupling technique. Sharp and distinguishable transversemagnetic (TM) and electric (TE) propagation modes wereobserved. The extraordinary and ordinary refractive indiceswere calculated to ne = 2.216±0.003 and no =2.247±0.002 for a 2.0 μm thick film at λ = 632.8nm. This implies a birefringence Δn = ne - no =-0.031±0.003 in the film. The ferroelectric state inNKN/Pt80Ir20 films at room temperature was indicated by apolarization loop with polarization as high as 33.4 μC/cm2at 700 kV/cm, remnant polarization of 9.9 μC/cm2 andcoercive field of 91 kV/cm. Current-voltage characteristics ofvertical Au/NKN/Pt80Ir20 capacitive cells and planar Au/NKN/LaAlO3 interdigital capacitors (IDCs) showed very goodinsulating properties, with the leakage current density for anNKN IDC on the order of 30 nA/cm2 at 400 kV/cm. Rf dielectricspectroscopy demonstrated low loss, low frequency dispersion,and high voltage tunability. At 1 MHz NKN/LaAlO3 showed adissipation factor tan δ of 0.010 and a tunability of 16.5% at 200 kV/cm. For the same structure the frequencydispersion, Δεr, between 1 kHz and 1 MHz was 8.5%. <b>Key words:</b>ferroelectrics, sodium potassium niobates,thin films, rf-magnetron sputtering, waveguiding, refractiveindex, prism coupling, dielectric tunability / NR 20140805

<p>With the emergence of 5G/mm-Wave communication, there is a growing need for novel front-end electromechanical devices in filtering and carrier generation applications. CMOS-MEMS resonators fabricated using state-of-the-art Integrated Circuit (IC) manufacturing processes provide a significant advantage for power, area and cost savings. In this work, a comprehensive physics-based compact model capable of capturing the non-linear behaviour and other non-idealities has been developed for MEMS resonators seamlessly integrated in CMOS. As the first large signal model for CMOS-embedded resonators, it enables holistic design of MEMS components with advanced CMOS circuits as well as system-level performance evaluation within the framework of modern IC design tools. Global Foundries 14nm FinFET (GF14LPP) Resonant Body Transistors (fRBT) operating at 11.8 GHz are demonstrated and benchmarked against this large-signal electromechanical model. </p> <p><br></p> <p>Additionally, there is a growing interest in CMOS-integrable ferroelectric materials such as Hafnium Dioxide (HfO2) and Aluminum Scandium Nitride (AlScN) for next-generation memory and computation, as well as electromechanical transduction in CMOS-MEMS devices. This work also explores the performance of 700 MHz Ferroelectric Capacitor-based resonators in the Texas Instruments HPE035 process under high-power operating conditions. Identification of previously unreported characteristics, together with the first nonlinear large signal model for integrated ferroelectric resonators, provides insights on the design of frequency references and acoustic filters using ferroelectric transducers. </p> <p><br></p> <p>Extending the range of unreleased CMOS-MEMS resonators to lower frequency using novel design, we also investigate embedded transducers in chip-scale devices for physical sensing. We have simulated and modeled the transducer coupling for low-frequency propagating modes and benchmarked their projected performance against state-of-the-art conventional MEMS sensors. A new approach to phononic crystal (PnC) Interdigitated Transducers (IDTs) is presented emulating the acoustic dispersion in conventional ICs. Unloaded quality factors up to 15,000 have been measured in $\sim$80 MHz resonators, demonstrating their capacity for resonant rotation sensing. We present a unique methodology to amplify and collimate acoustic waves using CMOS-design-rule-compliant Graded Index (GRIN) Phononic IDTs. Ultimately, the CMOS-MEMS techniques presented in this work for both RF applications and physical sensing can facilitate additional functionality in standard CMOS and emerging 3D heterogeneously integrated (3DHI) ICs with minor or no modifications to manufacturing and packaging. This enables new paradigms in next-generation communications, internet of things (IoT), and hardware security.</p>

No description available.

Ferroelectric oxides are a group of advanced electronic materials with a wide variety of properties useful in applications such as memory devices, resonators and filters, infrared sensors, microelectromechanical systems, and optical waveguides and modulators. Among the oxide perovskite-structured ferroelectric thin film materials, sodium potassium niobate or Na0.5K0.5NbO3 (NKN) has recently emerged as one of the most promising materials in radio frequency (rf) and microwave applications due to high dielectric tenability and low dielectric loss. This thesis presents results on growth and structural, optical, and electrical characterization of NKN thin films. The films were deposited by rf-magnetron sputtering of a stoichiometric, high density, ceramic Na0.5K0.5NbO3 target onto single crystal LaAlO3 (LAO), Al2O3 (sapphire), SrTiO3, and Nd:YAlO3, and polycrystalline Pt80Ir20 substrates. By x-ray diffractometry, NKN films on c-axis oriented LaAlO3, SrTiO3 and Nd:YAlO3 substrates were found to grow epitaxially, whereas films on r-cut sapphire and polycrystalline Pt80Ir20 substrates were found to be preferentially (00l) oriented. The surface morphology was explored using atomic force microscopy. Optical and waveguiding properties of the Na0.5K0.5NbO3/substrate heterostructures were characterized using prism-coupling technique. Sharp and distinguishable transverse magnetic and electric propagation modes were observed for NKN thicknesses up to 2.0 μm. The extraordinary and ordinary refractive indices were calculated together with the birefringence of the NKN material. The electro-optic effect in transverse geometry was measured in transmission, where the effective linear electro-optic response was determined to reff = 28 pm/V for NKN/Al2O3 with an applied dc field up to 18 kV/cm. The ferroelectric state in NKN films on Pt80Ir20 at room temperature was indicated by a polarization loop with saturated polarization as high as 33.4 μC/cm2 at 700 kV/cm, remnant polarization of 10 μC/cm2, and coercive field of 90 kV/cm. Current-voltage characteristics of vertical Au/NKN/PtIr capacitive cells and planar Au/NKN/LAO interdigital capacitors (IDCs) showed very good insulating properties, with the leakage current density for an NKN IDC on the order of 30 nA/cm2 at 400 kV/cm. Rf dielectric spectroscopy demonstrated low loss, low frequency dispersion, and high voltage tunability. At 1 MHz, NKN/LAO showed a dissipation factor tan δ = 0.010 and a tunability of 16.5 % at 200 kV/cm. For the same structure the frequency dispersion was Δεr = 8.5 % between 1 kHz and 1 MHz. / QC 20100928

No description available.

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit optischen Untersuchungen von MBE-gewachsenen hexagonalen Gruppe-III-Nitridheterostrukturen. Dafür wird die Photolumineszenz von InGaN/GaN- und GaN/AlGaN-Mehrfachquantengrabenstrukturen umfangreich zeitintegriert und zeitaufgelöst studiert. Die Proben unterscheiden sich in den Dicken der Quantengräben und Barrieren (InGaN) bzw. in der kristallografischen Orientierung (AlGaN). Als Ergebnis der großen, für das Materialsystem charakteristischen, elektrostatischen Felder zeigen die konventionell [0001]-orientierten Heterostrukturen eine verringerte Übergangsenergie und längere Lebensdauern mit zunehmender Quantengrabenbreite und höherem Indiumgehalt in den Gräben. Der beobachtete Einfluss des Quantumconfined Stark-Effektes (QCSE) auf diese Größen kann auch durch Modellrechnungen quantitativ gezeigt werden. In der Arbeit wird erstmals eine umfangreiche optische Charakterisierung einer neuartigen [1-100]-orientierten GaN-Heterostruktur auf Gamma-LiAlO2 geboten. Zum Vergleich wird das Verhalten einer identisch aufgebauten, [0001]-orientierten Struktur auf SiC ebenfalls diskutiert. Die (1-100)-Probe ist in Wachstumsrichtung frei von elektrostatischen Feldern und unterscheidet sich damit deutlich von den herkömmlichen Nitridstrukturen mit [0001]-Orientierung, deren interne Felder im MV/cm-Bereich liegen. Die spektrale Lage der Photolumineszenz bei geringen Anregungsdichten bestätigt die Flachbandsituation in der Probe. Aufgrund des bei dieser Probe nicht auftretenden QCSE ist hier eine deutlich verkürzte Lebensdauer festzustellen. Entsprechend der Auswahlregeln für hexagonales GaN weist die [1-100]-orientierte Probe eine sehr starke Polarisation der Photolumineszenz bezogen auf die Lage der [0001]-Achse auf. Die geringe Abweichung des ermittelten Polarisationsgrades von der, für A-Exzitonen in Volumen-GaN zu erwartenden, totalen Polarisation kann durch das Konfinement in den Quantengräben erklärt werden. Ein Schwerpunkt der Arbeit ist die Untersuchung der Rekombinationsmechanismen der Proben in Abhängigkeit von der induzierten Ladungsträgerdichte. Diese wird in einem Bereich von sehr geringer Dichte bis über die Mottdichte variiert. Eine Abschirmung der elektrostatischen Felder mit zunehmender Ladungsträgerdichte wird festgestellt. Dabei kann bei einer InGaN/GaN-Probe mit 3.1 nm breiten Gräben gezeigt werden, dass neben den internen piezoelektrischen Feldern die in der Literatur diskutierte Lokalisation von Exzitonen an Stöchiometrieschwankungen des Quantengrabens entscheidend die Rekombinationsdynamik in der Probe beeinflusst. Dies spiegelt sich in einer Abhängigkeit der Quantengrabeneigenschaften von den Anfangsbedingungen des Abklingprozesses und damit einem nicht existierenden allgemein gültigen Zusammenhang zwischen der Lebensdauer und der Ladungsträgerdichte wider. Die zeitaufgelösten Lumineszenzspektren der InGaN/GaN-Strukturen zeigen als Folge der mit höheren Ladungsträgerdichten zunehmenden Abschirmung eine verringerte Lebensdauer durch die vergrößerte Überlappung von Elektron- und Lochwellenfunktionen. Aufgrund der wieder abnehmenden Abschirmung während des Rekombinationsprozesses verändert sich die Lebensdauer im Laufe der Zeit. Gleichzeitig kommt es zu einer Verringerung der Übergangsenergie des Lumineszenzmaximums durch den weniger abgeschirmten QCSE. Die zeitintegrierten Photolumineszenzspektren zeigen ebenfalls eine deutliche Abhängigkeit von der Anregungsdichte. Während bei der feldfreien (1-100)-Probe keine Kompensationseffekte erwartet werden, weisen die Resultate für die konventionellen Proben auf einen, die Ladungsträgerdichte wesentlich beeinflussenden Effekt hin. Die Abhängigkeit der Intensität der Photolumineszenz von der Ladungsträgerdichte deutet ab einer bestimmten Anregungsdichte auf einen zusätzlichen Prozess, welcher die Ladungsträgerdichte reduziert, sich aber nicht im Lumineszenzspektrum widerspiegelt. Als Erklärung dafür wird die Absorption von stimulierter Emission im Substrat oder in der Pufferschicht angenommen. Bei den InGaN-Proben schiebt die Übergangsenergie mit höheren Dichten zu größeren Energien und nähert sich bis 10e5 W/cm2 einem Sättigungswert an. Dieser Wert entspricht trotz Dichten oberhalb der Mottdichte noch nicht der Flachbandsituation bei vollständig kompensierten internen Feldern. Als Ursache dafür wird der genannte, bei hohen Ladungsträgerdichten einsetzende Konkurrenzprozess gesehen. Bei den GaN/AlGaN-Proben kann im untersuchten Bereich der Anregungsdichte keine spektrale Verschiebung im Photolumineszenzspektrum festgestellt werden. Zum ersten Mal werden experimentelle Untersuchungen zur stimulierten Emission einer [1-100]-orientierten GaN-Probe durchgeführt und das optische Gewinnspektrum analysiert. Die Messungen zeigen einen maximalen Nettogewinn von ca. 50 1/cm. Aus der rechnerischen Analyse der Modenausbreitung lässt sich dafür ein Materialgewinn für GaN(1-100) von 1.1x10e4 1/cm ableiten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen außerdem, dass die Rekombination eines Elektron-Loch-Plasmas der Mechanismus für die stimulierte Emission ist. Dies entspricht dem überwiegenden Teil der in der Literatur veröffentlichten Beobachtungen für [0001]-orientierte Nitridstrukturen. Ein direkter Vergleich mit der parallel untersuchten GaN/AlGaN(0001)-Probe ist aufgrund der starken Substratabsorption nicht möglich. Es zeigt sich, dass für [1-100]-orientierte GaN-Heterostrukturen gute Ausgangsbedingungen für die Realisierung von Laserdioden gegeben sind. Zu den untersuchten Heterostrukturen wird die Wellenführung in den Proben simuliert. Bei den auf SiC gewachsenen Schichten werden die sich ausbreitenden Moden wegen des deutlich höheren Brechungsindexes des Substrates vornehmlich dort geführt. Die Überlappung der Moden mit dem aktiven Schichtpaket ist äußerst gering. Es ist für die Proben auf SiC kein optischer Gewinn zu erwarten. Die [1-100]-orientierte GaN/AlGaN-Probe besitzt eine deutlich bessere Wellenführung, da das LiAlO2 einen vergleichsweise kleinen Brechungsindex besitzt. Es wird ein Zusammenhang zwischen experimentell ermitteltem optischen Gewinn und dem Materialgewinn gebildet und das Ergebnis mit Rechnungen aus der Literatur verglichen. Ein Vorschlag für eine optimierte Wellenführung in allen untersuchten Proben wird gegeben. / In this thesis, the optical properties of molecular beam epitaxy grown hexagonal group-III nitride heterostructures are studied. The photoluminescence (PL) characteristics of InGaN/GaN and GaN/AlGAN multiple quantum well structures are investigated by time-integrated and time-resolved measurements. The analyzed specimens differ in the width of the quantum wells and barriers (InGaN) and in the crystallographic orientation (AlGaN), respectively. As a result of the large characteristic electrostatic fields, conventional [0001]-oriented heterostructures show a reduced transistion energy and longer lifetimes with increasing well width and higher Indium content in the wells. The observed impact of the Quantum Confined Stark Effect (QCSE) on these quantities is quantitatively shown in model calculations. In this work, a first extensive optical characterization of a novel [1-100]-oriented GaN heterostructure grown on Gamma-LiAlO2 is presented. For comparison, an identically designed [0001]-oriented structure on SiC is discussed. The (1-100)-grown specimen is free of electrostatic fields along the growth direction and shows a significant different behavior than conventional [0001]-oriented nitrides with internal fields of several MV/cm. The existing flat band conditions are confirmed by the spectral position of the PL at low excitation densities. Due to the non-existing QCSE at this specimen an significantly reduced lifetime is observed. A strong polarization of the PL is observed for the [1-100]-oriented sample, following the selection rules for hexagonal GaN. The small deviation of the degree of polarization from unity, which is expected in bulk GaN, is attributed to the quantum confinement in the heterostructures. One main topic of this thesis is the analysis of the recombination mechanisms of the specimens depending on the induced carrier density. The carrier density is varied from very low upto densities above the mott density. A screening of the electrostatic fields is observed with increasing carrier density. It is shown, that an InGaN/GaN heterostructure with a well width of 3.1 nm not only is influenced by internal piezoelectric fields but also the localization of excitons at stoichiometric inhomogenities in the quantum well is playing an important role for the recombination dynamics of the structure. This can be seen in the dependence of the decay process on the starting conditions. No general correlation is existing between lifetime and carrier density. Time-resolved PL measurements on InGaN/GaN heterostructures show a reduced lifetime due to an increased overlap of the electron and hole wave functions as a result of the increased screening at increasing carrier densities. During the recombination process the screening decreases again and the lifetime is changed with time. Simultaneously the transistion energy of the PL maximum is reduced by the less screened QCSE. A distinct dependence of the time-integrated PL spectra on the excitation density was also found. While there are no compensation effects expected at the (1-100) structure, which is free of electrostatic fields, the results for the conventional specimens point to an effect which influences the carrier density essentially. The dependence of the PL intensity on the carrier density points to an additional process, which comes into play at a special excitation density. This process reduces the carrier density but is invisible in the PL spectra. As an explanation we assume, that light of stimulated emission is absorbed either in the substrate or in the buffer layer. The transistion energy of the InGaN structures increases with increasing excitation density and reaches a saturation energy at a density of 10e5 W/cm2. Although this density is larger than the mott density, the transistion energy is not equivalent with a transition energy at flat band conditions. The origin of the observed effect is assumed to be the rival process, mentioned above, which comes into play at high carrier densities. For the GaN/AlGaN heterostructures no spectral shift of the PL was observed within the variation of excitation density. For the very first time, the stimulated emission of an [1-100]-oriented GaN structure was analyzed. A maximum netto gain of 50 1/cm was observed. From calculations of the mode propagation, a material gain of 1.1x10e4 1/cm is derived for GaN(1-100). Additionally from the results follows that the recombination of an electron-hole-plasma is the mechanism of the stimulated emission. This is in accordance with most of the published observations for [0001]-oriented GaN heterostructures. A direct comparison of both, the [1-100]-oriented specimen and the GaN/AlGaN(0001) structure, which was investigated parallel, was not possible. The reason for that is the strong absorption of the SiC substrate of the latter mentioned structure. It is generally shown, that [1-100]-oriented GaN heterostructures offers good starting conditions to realize laser diodes. The wave guiding was simulated for all of the used specimens. At structures grown on SiC the propagating modes are mainly guided in the substrate due to the larger refractive index of SiC with respect to GaN. The overlap of the amplified mode and the active layer is very small. No optical gain is expected for these structures. The [1-100]-oriented GaN/AlGaN structure shows a significantly improved wave guiding, due to the small refractive index of LiAlO2 in comparison with GaN. A correlation between the experimentally observed optical gain and the material gain is formed and the results are compared with the literature. A suggestion for an optimized wave guiding in all investigated specimens is given.

[…] Dans ce travail de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à ces bandes interdites et à ces modes de propagations dans le cas d’un cristal photonique constitué d’une matrice de piliers déposés en surface d’un milieu semi-fini. L’étude des interactions entre les piliers résonants localement avec la surface du milieu semi fini nous a permis d’identifier de nouveaux modes de propagation […]Nous avons également montré comment obtenir une réfraction négative omnidirectionnelle[…] La dernière partie de ce travail a été consacré à l’étude des mécanismes permettant la propagation et le confinement d’ondes guidées[…] .Nous avons également explicité les mécanismes qui permettent de crée ce type d’ondes guidées sub-longeur d’onde et le confinement des photons de surface. / [...] We present the features of the interaction between surface acoustic wave and locally resonant pillar on the top of demi infinite medium. We shown that the photonic crystal we proposed possess an acoustic metamaterial feature for surface acoustic waves in the manner that pillars on the top of the surface introduce new guide modes in the non radiative region of the substrate outside sound cone. We also demonstrate the these guided modes are resonant modes that have frequencies greatly lower than those expected from the Bragg mechanism. […]