abstract: The Great Bustard (Otis tarda) is an iconic species of the temperate grasslands of Europe and Asia, a habitat that is among the least protected ecosystems in the world. A distinct subspecies, the Asian Great Bustard (O. t. dybowskii), is poorly understood due to its wary nature and remote range in Siberia, Mongolia, and northern China. This subspecies is now endangered by rapid development. Using satellite telemetry and remote sensing, I investigated three aspects of the Asian Great Bustard’s ecology critical to its conservation: migratory routes, migratory cues, and habitat use patterns. I found that Asian Great Bustards spent one-third of the year on a 2000 km migratory pathway, a distance twice as far as has previously been recorded for the species. Tracked individuals moved nomadically over large winter territories and did not repeat migratory stopovers, complicating conservation planning. Migratory timing was variable and migratory movements were significantly correlated with weather cues. Specifically, bustards migrated on days when wind support was favorable and temperature presaged warmer temperatures on the breeding grounds (spring) or advancing winter weather (fall). On the breeding grounds, Asian Great Bustards used both steppe and wheat agriculture habitat. All recorded reproductive attempts failed, regardless of habitat in which the nest was placed. Agricultural practices are likely to intensify in the coming decade, which would present further challenges to reproduction. The distinct migratory behavior and habitat use patterns of the Asian Great Bustard are likely adaptations to the climate and ecology of Inner Asia and underscore the importance of conserving these unique populations. My research indicates that conservation of the Asian Great Bustard will require a landscape-level approach. This approach should incorporate measures at the breeding grounds to raise reproductive success, alongside actions on the migratory pathway to ensure appropriate habitat and reduce adult mortality. To secure international cooperation, I proposed that an increased level of protection should be directed toward the Great Bustard under the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). That proposal, accepted by the Eleventh Conference of Parties to CMS, provides recommendations for conservation action and illustrates the transdisciplinary approach I have taken in this research. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biology 2015

abstract: For the past 30 years wildlife biologists have debated the need of pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) to drink freestanding water (free water). Some have suggested that pronghorn may feed at night to increase preformed water (plant moisture) intake, thus decreasing their dependence on free water. Pronghorn diet composition and nutrient intake is integral to understanding water available to pronghorn through preformed and metabolic sources. The dual purpose of this study was to determine plant composition of pronghorn diets, and to examine whether night feeding provides a water allocation advantage by testing for differences between day and night and modeling free water requirements during biologically critical seasons and years of different precipitation. I determined species composition, selected nutrients, and moisture content of American pronghorn diets on Perry Mesa, Arizona in March, May, June and August of 2008 and 2009. I used microhistological analysis of fecal samples to determine percent plant composition of pronghorn diets. I used forage samples to evaluate the nutrient composition of those diets for moisture, crude protein and structural carbohydrates, and to calculate metabolic water. I used calculations proposed by Fox et al. (2000) to model free water requirements and modified the equations to reflect increased requirements for lactation. Diet analysis revealed that pronghorn used between 67% and 99% forbs and suggested fair range conditions. Preformed water was not significantly different between night and day. Night feeding appeared to be of marginal advantage, providing an average potential 9% preformed water increase in 2008, and 3% in 2009. The model indicated that neither male nor female pronghorn could meet their water requirements from preformed and metabolic water during any time period, season or year. The average free water requirements for females ranged from 0.67 L/animal/day (SE 0.06) in March, 2008 to 3.12 L/animal/day (SE 0.02) in June, 2009. The model showed that American pronghorn on Perry Mesa require access to free water during biological stress periods. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Biological Sciences 2012

abstract: Biological diversity is threatened by increasing anthropogenic modification of natural environments and increasing demands on natural resources. Sonoran desert tortoises (Gopherus morafkai) currently have Candidate status under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) based on health and habitat threats. To ensure this animal persists in the midst of multiple threats requires an understanding of the life history and ecology of each population. I looked at one physiological and one behavioral aspect of a population of tortoises at the Sugarloaf Mountain (SL) study site in central Arizona, USA. I used 21 years of capture-recapture records to estimate growth parameters of the entire population. I investigated habitat selection of juvenile tortoises by selecting 117 locations of 11 tortoises that had been tracked by radio-telemetry one to three times weekly for two years, selecting locations from both summer active season and during winter hibernation. I compared 22 microhabitat variables of tortoise locations to random SL locations to determine habitat use and availability. Male tortoises at SL reach a greater asymptotic length than females, and males and females appear to grow at the same rate. Juvenile tortoises at the SL site use steep rocky hillsides with high proportions of sand and annual vegetation, few succulents, and enclosed shelters in summer. They use enclosed shelters on steep slopes for winter hibernation. An understanding of these features can allow managers to quantify Sonoran desert tortoise habitat needs and life history characteristics and to understand the impact of land use policies. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Biological Sciences 2012

abstract: An understanding of diet habits is crucial in implementing proper management strategies for wildlife. Diet analysis, however, remains a challenge for ruminant species. Microhistological analysis, the method most often employed in herbivore diet studies, is tedious and time consuming. In addition, it requires considerable training and an extensive reference plant collection. The development of DNA barcoding (species identification using a standardized DNA sequence) and the availability of recent DNA sequencing techniques offer new possibilities in diet analysis for ungulates. Using fecal material collected from controlled feeding trials on pygmy goats, (Capra hicus), novel DNA barcoding technology using the P6-loop of the chloroplast trnL (UAA) intron was compared with the traditional microhistological technique. At its current stage of technological development, this study demonstrated that DNA barcoding did not enhance the ability to detect plant species in herbivore diets. A higher mean species composition was reported with microhistological analysis (79%) as compared to DNA barcoding (50%). Microhistological analysis consistently reported a higher species presence by forage class. For affect positive species identification, microhistology estimated an average of 89% correct detection in control diets, while DNA barcoding estimated 50% correct detection of species. It was hypothesized that a number of factors, including variation in chloroplast content in feed species and the effect of rumen bacteria on degradation of DNA, influenced the ability to detect plant species in herbivore diets and concluded that while DNA barcoding opens up new possibilities in the study of plant-herbivore interactions, further studies are needed to standardize techniques and for DNA bar-coding in this context. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Biological Sciences 2012

abstract: Since its inception in 1973, the Endangered Species Act has been met with both praise and criticism. More than 40 years later, the Act is still polarizing, with proponents applauding its power to protect species and critics arguing against its perceived ineffectiveness and potential mismanagement. Recovery plans, which were required by the 1988 amendments to the Act, play an important role in organizing efforts to protect and recover species under the Act. In 1999, in an effort to evaluate the process, the Society for Conservation Biology commissioned an independent review of endangered species recovery planning. From these findings, the SCB made key recommendations for how management agencies could improve the recovery planning process, after which the Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service redrafted their recovery planning guidelines. One important recommendation called for recovery plans to make threats a primary focus, including organizing and prioritizing recovery tasks for threat abatement. Here, I seek to determine the extent to which SCB recommendations were incorporated into these new guidelines, and if, in turn, the recommendations regarding threats manifested in recovery plans written under the new guidelines. I found that the guidelines successfully incorporated most SCB recommendations, except those that addressed monitoring. As a result, recent recovery plans have improved in their treatment of threats, but still fail to adequately incorporate threat monitoring. This failure suggests that developing clear guidelines for monitoring should be an important priority in future ESA recovery planning. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2014

abstract: Many wildlife species that are essential to human livelihoods are targeted with the aim of extracting short-term benefits. Overexploitation, resulting from failed common-pool resource governance, has endangered the sustainability of large animal species, in particular. Rights-based approaches to wildlife conservation offer a possible path forward. In a wildlife market, property rights, or shares of an animal population, are allocated to resource users with interests in either harvest or preservation. Here, I apply the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework (Ostrom, 2009) to identify the conditions under which the ecological, social, and economic outcomes of a conservation market are improved compared to the status quo. I first consider three case studies (Bighorn sheep, white rhino, and Atlantic Bluefin tuna) all of which employ different market mechanisms. Based on the SES framework and these case studies, I then evaluate whether markets are a feasible management option for other socially and ecologically significant species, such as whales (and similar highly migratory species), and whether market instruments are capable of accommodating non-consumptive environmental values in natural resource decision making. My results suggest that spatial and temporal distribution, ethical and cultural relevance, and institutional histories compatible with commodification of wildlife are key SES subsystem variables. Successful conservation markets for cross-boundary marine species, such as whales, sea turtles, and sharks, will require intergovernmental agreements. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2014

Please read the abstract in section 11summary (pp 246-251) of this document / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Centre for Wildlife Management / unrestricted

The game industry has become one of the fastest-growing industries in South Africa and consequently, during recent years, a growing number of stock farms have been converted to game farms. All forms of utilization within the game industry play a vital role with regards to sustainability and simultaneously contributing a significant boost to the national economy. It is therefore important to ensure that game ranchers are as well-informed as possible in their decision-making, as well as in assessing their outputs and endeavours. However, the information available on the game industry in the Eastern Cape is limited. This research study therefore focuses on the emerging trends in the game industry in the province. The objectives of the research are to examine various pertinent factors associated with the game industry, investigate the trends and discuss whether these trends have any implications for future purposes. The research commenced with a literature review, as well as information from earlier survey studies of the Eastern Cape game industry. For the current study, a replicate survey was conducted throughout the Eastern Cape, involving as many game ranchers as possible, and data were collected by means of self-administered questionnaires. The dilemma confronting the black wildebeest in the Eastern Cape was thoroughly investigated, together with farmers’ opinions and trends for the future of the species. It was important to include this particular aspect in the research, as at the time of the survey, widespread concerns were expressed with regards to new legislation which emerged during that time. The research cast light on several aspects associated with the industry which could positively assist game ranchers towards improved management and planning, as well as provide guidelines for future development purposes. Furthermore, the research identified crucial issues that should receive immediate attention from stakeholders across the industry as well as government.

This study considers the dynamical interaction of two predatory carnivores (Lions (Panthera leo) and Spotted Hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta)) and three of their common prey (Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)). The dependence on spatial structure of species’ interaction stimulated the author to formulate reaction-diffusion models to explain the dynamics of predator-prey relationships in ecology. These models were used to predict and explain the effect of threshold populations, predator additional food and prey refuge on the general species’ dynamics. Vital parameters that model additional food to predators, prey refuge and population thresholds were given due attention in the analyses. The stability of a predator-prey model for an ecosystem faced with a prey out-flux which is analogous to and modelled as an Allee effect was investigated. The results highlight the bounds for the conversion efficiency of prey biomass to predator biomass (fertility gain) for which stability of the three species ecosystem model can be attained. Global stability analysis results showed that the prey (warthog) population density should exceed the sum of its carrying capacity and threshold value minus its equilibrium value i.e., W >(Kw + $) −W . This result shows that the warthog’s equilibrium population density is bounded above by population thresholds, i.e., W < (Kw+$). Besides showing the occurrence under parameter space of the so-called paradox of enrichment, early indicators of chaos can also be deduced. In addition, numerical results revealed stable oscillatory behaviour and stable spirals of the species as predator fertility rate, mortality rate and prey threshold were varied. The stabilising effect of prey refuge due to variations in predator fertility and proportion of prey in the refuge was studied. Formulation and analysis of a robust mathematical model for two predators having an overlapping dietary niche were also done. The Beddington-DeAngelis functional and numerical responses which are relevant in addressing the Principle of Competitive Exclusion as species interact were incorporated in the model. The stabilizing effect of additional food in relation to the relative diffusivity D, and wave number k, was investigated. Stability, dissipativity, permanence, persistence and periodicity of the model were studied using the routine and limit cycle perturbation methods. The periodic solutions (b 1 and b 3), which influence the dispersal rate (') of the interacting species, have been shown to be controlled by the wave number. For stability, and in order to overcome predator natural mortality, the nutritional value of predator additional food has been shown to be of high quality that can enhance predator fertility gain. The threshold relationships between various ecosystem parameters and the carrying capacity of the game park for the prey species were also deduced to ensure ecosystem persistence. Besides revealing irregular periodic travelling wave behaviour due to predator interference, numerical results also show oscillatory temporal dynamics resulting from additional food supplements combined with high predation rates.

It is widely acknowledged that the organised wildlife and hunting industry in South Africa contributes significantly to the country’s economy, as well as to the effective management and conservation of wildlife on privately owned land. Despite this, hunting has come under increasing attack by anti-hunting proponents who wish to bring a ban on hunting. A number of broad shifts across society at large and lobbying against hunting by anti-hunting proponents have given rise to legitimate concerns regarding the social acceptability of hunting. To maintain the social legitimacy of hunting, it is imperative to put strategies in place to actively broaden the base of public acceptance of hunting. Towards this aim, this study is an empirical investigation of the causal determinants of the public’s attitudes towards hunting and of the implications it holds for improving the social legitimacy of hunting. The study commenced by building a sound theoretical foundation from the available literature on the measurement of attitudes, the structure and formation of attitudes, the instrumental and experiential aspects of attitudes, attitudinal ambivalence, the psychology of strong attitudes, as well as the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance. Thereafter, the study turned to identify an adequate and empirically valid research approach for investigating attitudes and its causal determinants. A popular attitude theory in social psychology, namely the theory of reasoned action, was identified as a suitable conceptual framework for conducting this study. According to the reasoned action model, the salient behavioural beliefs people associate with a particular behaviour form the informational foundation (or cognitive foundation) on which their attitudes towards the behaviour are based. More specifically, the model suggests that peoples’ overall attitude towards a behaviour is a function of their perceived probability that a behaviour will produce certain outcomes (belief strength), as well as the degree to which they judge the perceived outcomes of the behaviour as positive or negative (outcome evaluation). The methodological design of the study’s empirical component was strictly based on the standard procedures prescribed by the theory of reasoned action. Two consecutive and methodologically interrelated surveys were conducted amongst members of the public to collect the study’s primary data. The main salient behavioural beliefs on which different attitudes towards hunting are based were identified and further investigated. The results were analysed from the perspective of the theory of reasoned action and a clear understanding of the causal determinants of different attitudes towards hunting were attained. Based on the findings of the study, a number of conclusions and recommendations were made that may guide the development of future strategies to improve the social legitimacy of hunting. Amongst other things, it was suggested that public education programmes should be developed to address the public’s misconceptions of hunting; that public relation campaigns be undertaken to improve the public’s negative image of hunters; and that hunter education programmes be put in place to make hunters aware of the role they could play at community level to improve the social acceptability of hunting. Detailed guidelines regarding the contents of such education programmes and public relation campaigns were provided.