Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: Mechanical Engineering in the FACULTY OF ENGINEERING at the CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 2012 / The amount of power a horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) can produce is determined by two main factors, wind velocity and rotor swept area. Theory dictates that the power production of a horizontal wind turbine is related to the cube of wind velocity and the square of the turbine diameter (or radius). The power produced at any given time is thus dependent on of the wind velocity and the rotor swept area of the turbine. Wind is variable in availability and consistency. Very little can be done to effect the wind velocity passing through the turbine rotor area and its effect is minimal. Thus understandably if more power is required, from the same wind velocity, the rotor diameter must be increased. A variable length blade can adapt lengthwise to accommodate low wind velocities and similarly high wind velocities during extreme conditions, thus increasing the operational time and power production of the turbine. The work undertaken in this thesis is a comparative study between standard design, fixed length blades to that of a modified design, variable length blade. The project entailed the design and development of small diameter HAWT blades and experimental testing. The turbine blades were designed using applicable theory and manufactured from available materials. For the experiments, the turbine was mounted on a vehicle and driven at various speeds. Due to size limitations, no dynamic adaption was done during testing. The variable length design blade was obtained by cutting increments off. The results obtained from each test were compared at corresponding points and conditions. Final interpretation of results lead to the conclusion that by increasing or decreasing the turbine blade length the area of turbine energy capture can be adjusted to affect the amount of power produced. Additional benefits included, force reduction during extreme operating conditions, extended production period for the turbine and a mechanical start up method during low wind speeds. The financial feasibility did not form part of the scope of this thesis and the technical feasibility of the concept can be thoroughly addressed in future research.

Este trabalho apresenta a avaliação experimental em túnel aerodinâmico de características de dois aerogeradores de pequeno porte com cinco pás. Para isso, utilizando-se prototipagem 3D, construíram-se dois modelos em escala reduzida, os quais foram avaliados primeiramente utilizando-se Pás Ótimas de Betz e depois Pás Ótimas de Betz Modificadas. Antes de se avaliar o equipamento determinou-se a distribuição de velocidades na seção transversal do túnel com o auxílio de um tubo de Pitot. Com o perfil de velocidades do túnel conhecido, determina-se o torque estático do protótipo com o uso de um torquímetro digital acoplado ao eixo do equipamento, que registrou todas as leituras para as faixas de velocidade de 1 m/s até 9,88 m/s. Também com o torquímetro avalia-se a influência da posição angular das pás no torque medido. Para tanto, elas são projetadas móveis no hub, o que possibilitou variar sua angulação em relação ao escoamento, mudando assim o ângulo de ataque e, por conseguinte o torque produzido. Empregou-se um foto tacômetro para medir a rotação do modelo em giro livre. Com os dados obtidos, determina-se a curva de torque estático e a curva de RPM em função da velocidade incidente. Através da determinação experimental do perfil de velocidade incidente e do perfil de velocidade na esteira aerodinâmica de cada turbina é avaliada a variação da quantidade de movimento do escoamento e determinada a potência extraída pelos rotores em rotação livre. Este estudo visa contribuir com o projeto de um aerogerador real, prevendo as características aerodinâmicas que o equipamento apresentará se construído com o presente layout. Com os dados analisados se faz uma previsão para as curvas de potência dos protótipos. Os resultados experimentais de torque e potência demonstram boa aproximação com os resultados obtidos por avaliação analítica pelo método do elemento de pá. A prototipagem 3D administrada se mostrou eficaz traduzindo realismo e excelente custo-benefício. A turbina construída com Pás Ótimas de Betz apresentou torque estático 17,8% superior à construída com as Pás Modificadas e extraiu 22% a mais de potência do escoamento de ar. / This paper presents the experimental evaluation in wind tunnel of two small wind turbines features five blades. Therefore, using 3D prototyping, two models were built on a reduced scale, which were first evaluated using Optimal Blade Betz and Optimal Blade Betz Modified. Prior to evaluating the distribution machine at speeds determined in the tunnel cross-section with the aid of a Pitot tube. With the known tunnel velocity profile, determines the static torque of the prototype with the use of a digital torquimeter coupled to the machine axis, which recorded all the readings for the speed range of 1 m/s to 9,88 m/s. Also with the torquimeter evaluates the influence of the angular position of the blades in the measured torque. Therefore, it is mobile designed in the hub, allowing vary their angle in the outflow, thereby changing the angle of attack and therefore the torque produced. Employed a photo tachometer for measuring the rotation of the model in free spin. With the data, determines the static torque curve and RPM curve as a function of incident speed. Through experimental determination of the incident velocity profile and the velocity profile in the aerodynamic wake of each turbine is evaluated the variation of the amount of movement of the flow and determined the power extracted by the rotor in free rotation. This study aims to contribute to the design of a real wind turbine informing the aerodynamic characteristics of the equipment shall be constructed with this layout. With the data analyzed to make a prediction for the prototype power curves. The experimental results demonstrate torque and power good approximation to the results obtained by evaluation by analytical element of the paddle method. The turbine constructed with Optimal Betz Blades presented static torque 17,8% higher than constructed with the Modified Blades and extracted 22% more power air outflow.

Neste trabalho, são apresentados a discussão de conceitos fundamentais, a metodologia e os resultados de simulações numéricas baseadas no Método de Volumes Finitos do escoamento de ar sobre algumas opções de configurações de turbinas eólicas do tipo Savonius, com e sem estatores, em operação e, também, em condições estáticas, como as encontradas nas partidas das mesmas. Comparam-se os resultados para diferentes domínios computacionais, bem como alternativas de discretização espacial e temporal, visando apresentar a influência desses sobre os valores obtidos e estabelecer os parâmetros computacionais adequados para a análise das turbinas em estudo. Nas simulações numéricas, desenvolvidas empregando o programa comercial Star-CCM+, a equação da continuidade e as equações de Navier-Stokes com médias de Reynolds são resolvidas, juntamente com as equações de um modelo de turbulência adequado, que é escolhido, para a obtenção dos campos de pressão e de velocidade do escoamento. Emprega-se um domínio contendo uma região com malha móvel, na qual o rotor é inserido. A cada simulação, a velocidade angular da região de malha móvel é especificada de maneira a variar a razão de velocidade de ponta do rotor. Através da integração das forças ocasionadas devido aos gradientes de pressão e das forças originadas pelo atrito viscoso sobre as pás do rotor eólico, obtém-se o coeficiente de torque em cada simulação. O torque e as forças atuantes no rotor também são obtidos de forma semelhante. Com esses dados, outros parâmetros como a potência e o coeficiente de potência são obtidos. Análises dos principais parâmetros de desempenho do rotor Savonius são realizadas e indicam uma boa concordância com resultados experimentais e de simulações numéricas realizadas por outros autores. Os resultados obtidos nas simulações apresentaram-se bastante representativos do fenômeno analisado. / This research work presents a discussion of basic concepts, the methodology and the results of numerical simulations based on Finite Volume Method for the air flow through some configuration options of the Savonius wind turbines, with and without stators, in operation, and also under static conditions, such as those found in the self starting. Results for different computational domains, as well as alternative spatial and temporal discretization are compared, in order to present the influence of these on the obtained values from the computational analysis of the turbines in study. In the numerical simulations, performed using the commercial software Star-CCM+, the equation of continuity and the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations were solved, together with the equations of a turbulence model appropriate, which is chosen, so that the fields of pressure and velocity could be found. It was used, in the calculations, a domain containing a region with a moving mesh, in which the rotor was inserted. In each simulation, the rotational rate of the moving mesh region was specified so as to vary the tip speed ratio of rotor. Through the integration of the forces arising due to the pressure gradients and the forces originated from the viscous friction on the wind rotor blades, the moment coefficient could be obtained in each simulation. The moment and forces acting on the rotor were also obtained similarly. With these data, other parameters such as the power and the power coefficient of the wind rotor could be obtained. Analysis of the principals performance parameters of the Savonius wind rotor were performed and indicated a good agreement with experimental results and numerical simulations performed by other authors. The simulations results are quite representative of the phenomenon analyzed.

A evolução do uso da energia eólica nas últimas décadas está diretamente relacionada ao desenvolvimento da tecnologia empregada na conversão e projeto das instalações. A viabilização de uma instalação eólica de grande porte depende da avaliação correta do potencial eólico. A fim de avaliar a capacidade de conversão de energia cinética do vento em torque, é fundamental a modelagem da esteira aerodinâmica das turbinas eólicas. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a esteira aerodinâmica formada por uma turbina eólica dimensionada conforme a teoria de otimização de Betz. Para tanto, realiza-se inicialmente uma pesquisa sobre a evolução da transformação da energia contida no vento em energia mecânica e métodos de análise adotados. Para modelagem da esteira, realiza-se a simulação numérica do escoamento sobre uma turbina de eixo horizontal empregando o Método de Volumes Finitos. Através do uso da Dinâmica dos Fluidos Computacional são resolvidas as Equações de Navier-Stokes com Médias de Reynolds (RANS) e a utilização dos modelos de turbulência k-, k- RNG, k- e k- SST. Para a solução das equações é utilizado o programa ANSYS-CFX. Define-se o perfil NACA 4412 como perfil aerodinâmico para projeto das pás da turbina, e modela-se a turbina através da teoria de dimensionamento ótimo de Betz. O domínio, discretizado em um número finito de volumes de controle, possui duas regiões distintas, uma estática e outra rotacional, representado o rotor da turbina. Inicialmente são apresentadas simulações com os diferentes modelos de turbulência e definido o modelo que apresenta os melhores resultados, o k- SST. Para o modelo escolhido são realizadas simulações incluindo estudos com a turbina inclinada em relação à direção de incidência do vento, para verificar a alteração no perfil da esteira gerada e na capacidade da turbina em transformar a energia do vento em Torque. Os resultados obtidos para os campos de velocidade e pressão são comparados com os de outros autores e mostraram-se coerentes, indicando que a simulação feita é capaz de representar o fenômeno analisado. / The evolution of the use of the wind energy in recent decades is directly related to the technology in the facilities conversion and design. The feasibility of a large wind farm depends on the correct assessment of wind potential. To evaluate the capacity of converting wind kinetic energy in torque, it is essential to model the wake aerodynamics of wind turbines. This paper presents a study on the aerodynamic wake formed by a wind turbine sized according to the Betz optimization theory. For this, initially it is performed a research on the evolution of the energy contained in wind into mechanical energy and the adopted analysis methods. For wake modeling, a horizontal axis wind turbine flow numerical simulation is done using the Finite Volume Method. Using the Computational Fluid Dynamics, the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations are solved with the use of the k-, k- RNG, k- e k- SST turbulence models and using the software ANSYS-CFX. It is defined the NACA 4412 profile as aerodynamic profile for turbine blades and the turbine is modeled using the Betz optimization theory. The domain, discretized into a finite number of control volumes, has two distinct regions, one static and one rotational, represented the turbine rotor. Initially the simulations with different turbulence models are presented and the model k- SST is defined as the model that gives best results. For the chosen model, simulations are performed, including studies on the turbine yawed with respect to the wind incidence direction, to verify the profile change in the generated wake and turbine capacity to convert wind energy into torque. The obtained results for the velocity and pressure fields are compared to other authors are very consistent, indicating that the proposed simulation is capable of representing the analyzed phenomenon.

Este trabalho apresenta a avaliação experimental em túnel aerodinâmico de características de dois aerogeradores de pequeno porte com cinco pás. Para isso, utilizando-se prototipagem 3D, construíram-se dois modelos em escala reduzida, os quais foram avaliados primeiramente utilizando-se Pás Ótimas de Betz e depois Pás Ótimas de Betz Modificadas. Antes de se avaliar o equipamento determinou-se a distribuição de velocidades na seção transversal do túnel com o auxílio de um tubo de Pitot. Com o perfil de velocidades do túnel conhecido, determina-se o torque estático do protótipo com o uso de um torquímetro digital acoplado ao eixo do equipamento, que registrou todas as leituras para as faixas de velocidade de 1 m/s até 9,88 m/s. Também com o torquímetro avalia-se a influência da posição angular das pás no torque medido. Para tanto, elas são projetadas móveis no hub, o que possibilitou variar sua angulação em relação ao escoamento, mudando assim o ângulo de ataque e, por conseguinte o torque produzido. Empregou-se um foto tacômetro para medir a rotação do modelo em giro livre. Com os dados obtidos, determina-se a curva de torque estático e a curva de RPM em função da velocidade incidente. Através da determinação experimental do perfil de velocidade incidente e do perfil de velocidade na esteira aerodinâmica de cada turbina é avaliada a variação da quantidade de movimento do escoamento e determinada a potência extraída pelos rotores em rotação livre. Este estudo visa contribuir com o projeto de um aerogerador real, prevendo as características aerodinâmicas que o equipamento apresentará se construído com o presente layout. Com os dados analisados se faz uma previsão para as curvas de potência dos protótipos. Os resultados experimentais de torque e potência demonstram boa aproximação com os resultados obtidos por avaliação analítica pelo método do elemento de pá. A prototipagem 3D administrada se mostrou eficaz traduzindo realismo e excelente custo-benefício. A turbina construída com Pás Ótimas de Betz apresentou torque estático 17,8% superior à construída com as Pás Modificadas e extraiu 22% a mais de potência do escoamento de ar. / This paper presents the experimental evaluation in wind tunnel of two small wind turbines features five blades. Therefore, using 3D prototyping, two models were built on a reduced scale, which were first evaluated using Optimal Blade Betz and Optimal Blade Betz Modified. Prior to evaluating the distribution machine at speeds determined in the tunnel cross-section with the aid of a Pitot tube. With the known tunnel velocity profile, determines the static torque of the prototype with the use of a digital torquimeter coupled to the machine axis, which recorded all the readings for the speed range of 1 m/s to 9,88 m/s. Also with the torquimeter evaluates the influence of the angular position of the blades in the measured torque. Therefore, it is mobile designed in the hub, allowing vary their angle in the outflow, thereby changing the angle of attack and therefore the torque produced. Employed a photo tachometer for measuring the rotation of the model in free spin. With the data, determines the static torque curve and RPM curve as a function of incident speed. Through experimental determination of the incident velocity profile and the velocity profile in the aerodynamic wake of each turbine is evaluated the variation of the amount of movement of the flow and determined the power extracted by the rotor in free rotation. This study aims to contribute to the design of a real wind turbine informing the aerodynamic characteristics of the equipment shall be constructed with this layout. With the data analyzed to make a prediction for the prototype power curves. The experimental results demonstrate torque and power good approximation to the results obtained by evaluation by analytical element of the paddle method. The turbine constructed with Optimal Betz Blades presented static torque 17,8% higher than constructed with the Modified Blades and extracted 22% more power air outflow.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Esta dissertaÃÃo implementa uma planta de uma unidade de bombeamento suprida por eletricidade a partir da energia eÃlica, para viabilizar a extraÃÃo da Ãgua de poÃos. Instalada na EstaÃÃo de Engenharia de Pesca no Campus do Pici situado na Universidade Federal do Cearà (UFC), em Fortaleza - CE, Brasil. A unidade dispÃe de um aerogerador (1 kW-220 Vca), um controlador de carga, um sistema de bombeamento de Ãgua a partir de poÃo atà um reservatÃrio elevado. A energia elÃtrica para o acionamento do sistema de bombeamento pode ser fornecida pelo tanto pelo aerogerador quanto atravÃs da rede elÃtrica convencional. Outro aspecto enriquecedor do trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de uma tubulaÃÃo configurÃvel em que à possÃvel submeter à bomba a diversas cargas hidrÃulicas, para fins de realizaÃÃo dos testes operacionais. A planta desenvolvida foi capaz de bombear, em mÃdia, 4.318 L/dia de Ãgua com o valor mÃximo 10.698 L/dia a uma velocidade de vento mÃdia de 3,84 m/s. Os rendimentos mÃdios alcanÃados foram 10% (eÃlico/hidrÃulico) e 41% (elÃtrico /hidrÃulico) para uma velocidade de 6,5 m/s. Os ensaios realizados demonstraram baixa robustez do aerogerador utilizado, comprometendo, dessa forma, a disponibilidade operacional e a confiabilidade do equipamento. SÃo sugeridos aÃÃes para garantir a viabilidade da unidade usada no bombeamento de Ãgua acionada por aerogerador de pequeno porte.

Small wind turbines that operate in low-wind environments are prone to suffer performance degradation as they often fail to accelerate to a steady, power-producing condition. The behaviour during this process is called “starting behaviour” and it is the subject of this present work. This thesis evaluates potential benefits that can be obtained from the improvement of starting behaviour, investigates, in particular, small wind turbine starting behaviour (both horizontal- and vertical-axis), and presents aerofoil performance characteristics (both steady and unsteady) needed for the analysis. All of the investigations were conducted using a new set of aerodynamic performance data of six aerofoils (NACA0012, SG6043, SD7062, DU06-W-200, S1223, and S1223B). All of the data were obtained at flow conditions that small wind turbine blades have to operate with during the startup - low Reynolds number (from 65000 to 150000), high angle of attack (through 360◦), and high reduced frequency (from 0.05 to 0.20). In order to obtain accurate aerodynamic data at high incidences, a series of CFD simulations were undertaken to illustrate effects of wall proximity and to determine test section sizes that offer minimum proximity effects. A study was carried out on the entire horizontal-axis wind turbine generation system to understand its starting characteristics and to estimate potential benefits of improved starting. Comparisons of three different blade configurations reveal that the use of mixed-aerofoil blades leads to a significant increase in starting capability. The improved starting capability effectively reduces the time that the turbine takes to reach its power-extraction period and, hence, an increase in overall energy yield. The increase can be as high as 40%. Investigations into H-Darriues turbine self-starting capability were made through the analogy between the aerofoil in Darrieus motion and flapping-wing flow mechanisms. The investigations reveal that the unsteadiness associated with the rotor is key to predicting its starting behaviour and the accurate prediction can be made when this transient aerofoil behaviour is correctly modelled. The investigations based upon the analogy also indicate that the unsteadiness can be exploited to promote the turbine ability to self-start. Aerodynamically, this exploitation is related to the rotor geometry itself.

Alliant flexibilité de contrôle et bon rendement, les Machines Synchrone à Double Excitation (MSDE) sont de plus en plus investiguées pour diverses applications de petites et moyennes puissances et rarement pour des applications de fortes puissances. Cette thèse a pour objectif l’étude d’un Générateur Synchrone à Double Excitation (GSDE) de forte puissance. Un modèle de comportement a été établi. Des méthodes analytiques et semi-analytiques ont été utilisées pour la modélisation multi-physique de la machine. Ce modèle a été validé, dans un premier temps, par comparaison aux résultats d’un modèle éléments finis.Comparé à un Générateur Synchrone à Pôles Saillants (GSPS), le GSDE offre des solutions plus intéressantes énergétiquement et économiquement, que ce soit en fonctionnement à vitesse constante ou à vitesse variable. Dans le cadre d’un fonctionnement en générateur éolien, l’augmentation du nombre d’encoche par pôle et par phase et l’augmentation de la fréquence d’alimentation contribuent à l’amélioration des performances de la GSDE. Cependant il faudrait tenir compte des impacts sur l’électronique de puissance et le multiplicateur mécanique. En plus, la distribution de Weibull et le bon choix de la plage utile de variation de la vitesse du vent, jouent un rôle important sur le dimensionnement optimal du générateur éolien.Un prototype de GSDE d’une puissance d’1MVA a été dimensionné, optimisé et fabriqué. Tout d’abord, le prototype a servi à la validation du modèle multi-physique. En plus la réalisation des essais sur deux étapes (avant et après le collage des aimants permanents) a montré l’apport énergétique du GSDE par rapport au GSPS / The use of Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Machine (HESM) can widely be extended to any size of power applications in regards to its high efficiency and simplicity of flux control. The aim of this thesis consists to analyze different design constraints and develop optimization processes of a Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Generator (HESG).Analytical and lumped models were used with reasonable level of accuracy and minimum computation time. The model has been validated by comparing the result to those achieved by FEM.The study shows the technical and economical advantages of the use of HESG compare to the conventional Salient Pole Synchronous Generator (SPSG). The comparison between the two generator topologies was considered for constant and variable speed applications such as wind energy. The influence of several parameters such as frequency and the number of slot per pole and per phase was investigated. For the case of wind energy application the study shows the importance of Weibull distribution and the speed range when looking for the optimized generator.In order to validate the multi-physics model, a 1MVA HESG was considered and a prototype produced. To highlight the advantages and performances of HESG generator a test program was carried out into steps. A first set of tests have been made before bounding the permanent magnets and the second set of tests have been made after bounding the permanent magnets

The trend of future wind farms moving further offshore requires much higher reliability for each wind turbine in order to reduce maintenance cost. The drive-train system and power electronic converter system have been identified as critical sub-assemblies that are subject to higher failure rates than the other sub-assemblies in a wind turbine. Modern condition monitoring techniques may help schedule the maintenance and reduce downtime. However, when it comes to offshore wind turbines, it is more crucial to reduce the failure rates (or reduce the stresses) for the wind turbines during operation since the harsh weather and a frequently inaccessible environment will dramatically reduce their availability once a failure happens. This research examines the mechanical, electrical and thermal stresses in the sub-assemblies of a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine and how to reduce them by improved control strategies. The DFIG control system (the rotor-side and the grid-side converter control) as well as the wind turbine control system are well established. The interactions of these control systems have been investigated. This research examines several further strategies to reduce the mechanical and electrical stresses. The control system's coordination with the protection schemes (crowbar and dc-chopper) during a grid fault is presented as well. An electro-thermal model of the power converter has been developed to integrate with the DFIG wind turbine model, for the evaluation of the thermal stresses under different operating states and control schemes. The main contributions of this thesis are twofold. A first contribution is made by providing all the control loops with well-tuned controllers in a more integrated methodology. The dynamics of these controllers are determined from their mathematical models to minimize the interference between different control-loops and also to reduce the electrical transients. This thesis proposes a coordination strategy for the damping control, pitch control and crowbar protection which significantly reduces the mechanical oscillations. On the other hand, an integrated model of the wind turbine and converter electro-thermal system is established that can illustrate the performance integration with different control strategies.

Wind energy is one of the fastest-growing renewable energy technologies, and horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) have been the most common device to convert wind kinetic energy into electrical energy. As the capacities of wind turbines and scales of wind farm constructions are rapidly increasing over time, environmental impacts of wind energy are becoming more relevant and raising more attention than ever before. One of the major environmental concerns is noise emission from wind energy facilities, especially low-frequency noise and infrasound that allegedly cause so-called wind turbine syndrome. Therefore, a numerical simulation program capable to predict low-frequency noise and infrasound emission from wind turbines is a useful tool to aid future wind energy development. In this study of this thesis, a computer program named TDRIP (Time Domain Rotor Infrasound Prediction) is developed based on acoustic analogy theories. Farassat’s formulation 1A, a solution to Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings (FW-H) equation, is implemented in the TDRIP program to compute aerodynamically generated sound. The advantage of this program is its capability to simultaneously compute infrasound emission of multiple wind turbines in time domain, which is a challenging task for other aerodynamic noise prediction methods. The developed program is validated against results obtained from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The program is then used to compute aerodynamic noise emitted from wind turbine rotors. The effects of wind direction, wind turbine siting, and phase of wind turbine rotation on consequent aerodynamic noise are investigated. Results of aerodynamic noise computation imply that wind turbine siting configuration or wind turbine phase adjustment can help reducing noise level at certain locations, which make the program ideal to be integrated into wind farm siting or control tools.