This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree, Masters of Arts in Sociology in the Faculty of Humanities (School of Social Sciences) at the University of Witwatersrand, 2016 / During the apartheid era, black women were forced into the rural areas to live off the land, without opportunities and choices to allow them to build decent lives for themselves. After many decades of apartheid, South Africa finally became a democratic country in 1994. Following the establishment of democracy in 1994, the South African society experienced quite a number of changes on the economic, social, and political level. Amongst those changes was the rectification of the constitution which recognized all citizens (men and women, black and white) as equal. Numerous acts were put in place to promote equality in all spheres of life. However, to this day, poverty and inequality remain evident on many black women in the country. Microfinance is embraced by many development organizations, states and agencies around the world as the main and efficient form of women’s empowerment. South Africa is also one of the states which have joined the bandwagon, with its Department of Trade and Industry (dti) having various microfinance programmes aimed at empowering women. However, with all the programmes, there seems to be no changes in the situations of black women, especially rural poor women in the country as illustrated by statistics. This paper, therefore, attempts to find out the reason behind the low status of women in post-apartheid South Africa by reviewing critical literature on empowerment and microfinance as an empowerment strategy to understand their impact on women’s lives. The study also analyse the dti’s policy documents on empowerment as one of the state’s institutions which promotes women’s empowerment through microfinance. Furthermore, this study argues that the current women’s empowerment strategy (microfinance) is not for the benefit of poor black women, but for that of the institutions offering these programmes. This argument is supported by an analysis conducted on dti’s women’s empowerment strategic documents and programmes, which was used as a case study for this paper. This study suggests that changes in the designing and implementation of the policies are required. / GR2017

The purpose of the thesis is to study microcredit regulation in India, how it is designed, and how it affects the borrowers. Since microfinance institutes (MFIs) often claim that microcredit is a tool for empowering women, the impact on women has been studied in particular in the thesis. The success and the failures from using different models and legal structures for microcredit can be used to improve credit regulation in both developing and developed jurisdictions. The research questions that are studied are: What impact does microcredit regulation have on borrowers? How does microcredit impact women in particular? How can microcredit regulation improve the well-being of borrowers? In order to fulfil the aim of the thesis, a field study in India has been carried out to interview borrowers of microcredit, employees at a MFI and other experts on the field. To understand the impact that microcredit has had on the borrowers, the Capabilities Approach is applied on results from interviews with borrowers. Microcredit provides small loans to people in developing countries. It has become popular all over the world as a tool to alleviate poverty and empower women, especially in India. The sector was largely unregulated in India until the event of the Andhra Pradesh crisis in 2010. Leading up to the crisis, many microfinance institutes scaled up quickly and several entities shifted from not-for-profit into for-profit entities as financial institutions and commercial banks entered the sector. The methods used by the institutes, along with the non-existing legal support, led to borrowers defaulting and becoming over-indebted. Reports in the media emerged of some borrowers committing suicide as an effect of the crisis. The public reputation of microcredit was for the first time tarnished. After the crisis the sector begun to regulate the for-profit microfinance institutes that had caused the crisis. Today, they are fully regulated and supervised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Other entities have remained unregulated, despite attempts to regulate them. The study has shown that microcredit has improved the well-being of most of the borrowers in terms of change in status, social participation, and increase in income. When using the Capabilities Approach microcredit can enhance one’s capabilities and freedom if the microcredit regulations aim is to improve the well-being. In terms of how microcredit impacts women specially, the interviews show that women are not always the primary user of the loan, she is often used as an instrument through which the husband gets the loan. Microcredit has the potential for positively impacting female well-being, but it does not presently live up to the notion of empowering women through entrepreneurship. To conclude, borrowers’ well-being has improved through the introduction of microcredit, but there is no clear correlation between microcredit and improvements in well-being. Well-being cannot be achieved if there is no regulation in place which aims to prevent exploitation of MFIs. The event of Andhra Pradesh crisis provides us with examples of how microcredit regulation can be an important tool in improving welfare and reducing harmful credit. / Syftet med uppsatsen är att studera regelverket gällande mikrolån i Indien, dels hur det är utformat och dels undersöka hur det påverkar mikrolånstagarna. Eftersom mikrolånsinstituten ofta hävdar att mikrolån kan användas som ett verktyg för att stärka kvinnor, har påverkan på kvinnorna studerats särskilt. Framgångarna och misslyckandena från att använda olika modeller och regelverk för mikrolån kan användas för att förbättra kreditreglering i både utvecklingsländer och utvecklade länder. Frågeställningarna som studeras är: Vilka effekter har regleringen för mikrolån på låntagarna? Hur påverkas kvinnor av mikrolån i synnerhet? Hur kan regleringen för mikrolån förbättra låntagarnas välbefinnande? För att uppfylla syftet med uppsatsen har en fältstudie i Indien genomförts där intervjuer har gjorts med framförallt låntagare, men även anställda vid ett mikrolånsinstitut och andra experter på området. För att förstå hur låntagarna påverkas av mikrolån har Capabilities Approach tillämpats på resultaten från intervjuerna med låntagarna. Mikrolån innebär små lån till människor i utvecklingsländer. Mikrolånen har blivit populära över hela världen som ett verktyg för att minska fattigdom och stärka kvinnor, särskilt i Indien. Under lång tid var sektorn nästan oreglerad i Indien fram till Andhra Pradesh-krisen 2010. Under tiden som ledde upp till krisen växte många mikrolånsinstitut snabbt och många institut skiftade från icke-vinstdrivande till vinstdrivande företag allteftersom finansinstitut och banker intog sektorn. De metoder som användes av instituten tillsammans med den näst intill obefintliga regleringen ledde till att låntagare inte kunde betala sina skulder allteftersom de förföll till betalning. De blev överskuldsatta och i rapporter i media framkom det att vissa låntagare hade begått självmord som en effekt av krisen. Mikrolånsinstitutens offentligt rykte blev för första gången förstört. Efter krisen började sektorn reglera de mikrolånsinstitut som var orsaken till krisen och idag är de helt och hållet reglerade och övervakade av the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Övriga institut förblev i stort sett oreglerade trots försök att reglera dem. Studien har visat att mikrolån har förbättrat de flesta låntagarnas välbefinnande genom förbättringar i status, socialt deltagande, och ökad inkomst. Genom att använda Capabilities Approach kan mikrolån öka en persons förmågor och frihet om regelverket för mikrolån syftar till att förbättra låntagarnas välmående. När det gäller hur mikrokredit påverkat kvinnor specifikt visade intervjuerna att kvinnan inte alltid är den verkliga låntagaren, ofta används hon som ett instrument där mannen tar del av lånet. Mikrolån kan potentiellt ha en positiv påverkan på kvinnors välbefinnande, men det kan inte leva upp till föreställningen om att stärka kvinnor genom entreprenörskap. Sammanfattningsvis kan studien visa att låntagarnas välmående har förbättrats genom mikrolån, men det finns ingen automatisk koppling mellan mikrokrediter och förbättringar i låntagarnas välbefinnande. Ökat välbefinnande går inte att uppnå om det inte finns ett regelverk som syftar till att motverka exploatering av mikrolånsinstitut. Krisen i Andhra Pradesh kan ge ett exempel på hur regleringen för mikrolån kan användas som ett verktyg för att förbättra välfärd och minska skadlig kreditgivning.

In recent years ICT has gotten sustained interest in which it’s seen as a tool for development andsocial transformation. There have been a rise of ICT4D (ICT for development) initiatives in theinternational arena. The Philippine organization Foundation for Media Alternatives (FMA) isworking with the intersection of ICT and women’s empowerment to advocate women’s rights andissues in the online space as well as increasing women’s strategic use of ICT. This paper is aMinor Field Study conducted in Quezon City, the Philippines, which explores FMA’s Gender andICT program. The aim of the study is to examine the strategies and practices for womenempowerment through ICT as well as mapping the major challenges in their work. The study wasconducted through observations and interviews with the members of FMA as well as women froman assisted urban poor community. The result outlines the main practices taken in the program toreach an understanding of the work done for women’s empowerment. Furthermore, the studyportrays that the full potential of the practices can’t be fulfilled due to the current environmentFMA are operating in. The experienced challenges in their work have been characterized into fivecommon areas; funding, the political environment, the cooperation, the unsafe online space andlastly the socioeconomical divide in the society.

The purpose of the study is to: (1) examine the degree to which women borrowers of the Grameen Bank are being empowered to participate in familial decision-making around the management of income and expenditures like food, children’s education, dowry and teenage marriages; and (2) to examine women borrowers’ engagement in community activities such as the degree of freedom women are granted to visit public places like schools, local councils, banks and markets. In particular, the study explores the role of the Grameen Bank (GB) in women’s empowerment through the Sixteen Decisions, an educational program designed to empower women in the family and community. This study used a mixed-methods research design that included 61 GB women borrowers selected through purposive sampling. The data suggest that the participants have assumed leadership roles within their families: more than 80% of the study’s participants led decision making within their family; more than 90% supported their children’s education financially; 91% reported that they worked together with family members to manage day-to-day expenses; 80% reported that they manage their family incomes; 98% reported they do not like dowry marriages and teenage marriages; and 33% view male-dominant values as a hindrance to women’s development. The findings indicated that 98% of GB women borrower participants are engaged in community organizations and 94% do not face problems with this engagement. In the 2009 UpZilla (Municipal Sub-district) Election, out of 481 seats, 114 Female Chairs (25% of the total) were elected from the GB women borrowers and their families (Grameen Bank, 2009). In addition, the number of women borrowers serving as councilors has increased from 1,572 in 1997 to 1,950 in 2003; these data indicate that the number of women borrowers acting in formal leadership roles is increasing (Grameen Bank, 2009). The study finds the GB program has had a positive impact upon the borrowers’ relations in the family and community. In spite of these developments, one-fifth of GB women borrowers’ husbands control their wives’ loan money, an indication of the strength of patriarchy in Bangladesh. Although GB’s Sixteen Decisions have included economic issues and other social issues, none directly discusses gender inequality, which the study findings suggest is important. Hence a revision of the Sixteen Decisions is suggested.

The purpose of the study is to: (1) examine the degree to which women borrowers of the Grameen Bank are being empowered to participate in familial decision-making around the management of income and expenditures like food, children’s education, dowry and teenage marriages; and (2) to examine women borrowers’ engagement in community activities such as the degree of freedom women are granted to visit public places like schools, local councils, banks and markets. In particular, the study explores the role of the Grameen Bank (GB) in women’s empowerment through the Sixteen Decisions, an educational program designed to empower women in the family and community. This study used a mixed-methods research design that included 61 GB women borrowers selected through purposive sampling. The data suggest that the participants have assumed leadership roles within their families: more than 80% of the study’s participants led decision making within their family; more than 90% supported their children’s education financially; 91% reported that they worked together with family members to manage day-to-day expenses; 80% reported that they manage their family incomes; 98% reported they do not like dowry marriages and teenage marriages; and 33% view male-dominant values as a hindrance to women’s development. The findings indicated that 98% of GB women borrower participants are engaged in community organizations and 94% do not face problems with this engagement. In the 2009 UpZilla (Municipal Sub-district) Election, out of 481 seats, 114 Female Chairs (25% of the total) were elected from the GB women borrowers and their families (Grameen Bank, 2009). In addition, the number of women borrowers serving as councilors has increased from 1,572 in 1997 to 1,950 in 2003; these data indicate that the number of women borrowers acting in formal leadership roles is increasing (Grameen Bank, 2009). The study finds the GB program has had a positive impact upon the borrowers’ relations in the family and community. In spite of these developments, one-fifth of GB women borrowers’ husbands control their wives’ loan money, an indication of the strength of patriarchy in Bangladesh. Although GB’s Sixteen Decisions have included economic issues and other social issues, none directly discusses gender inequality, which the study findings suggest is important. Hence a revision of the Sixteen Decisions is suggested.

Are mobile phones the best vehicle for reducing gender inequality in the developing world? ICT experts champion the use of mobile phones to improve women’s lives, and various stakeholders have invested millions of dollars to launch mobile phone programs for women. Yet, given high female illiteracy rates, patriarchal societies, and other structural and cultural barriers in developing countries, many scholars contend that limited access to ICTs can perpetuate gender inequality. Rooted in the theory that women’s empowerment and equality are inseparable and necessary components for the realization of sustainable economic and social development, this paper aims to determine if stakeholders are jumping on the mobile phone bandwagon too soon by using a multivariate regression of cross national data to demonstrate whether or not mobile phones fall short of advancing women at the same rate that men develop.

<p>The purpose with this study is to find out how the mobile phone and the Village Pay Phone from Grameen Telecom have been implemented into women’s life in rural Bangladesh. It also aims to study how the women have become empowered by this program. The sample constitutes sixteen female owners. A purposeful cluster sampling was used to depict six villages from various parts of Bangladesh. When arriving in the villages a snowball sampling method was used to find female VPP owners. The sampling method was chosen to include a sample of various characteristics. The study has a hermeneutic phenomenological approach, which aims to find out how the women experience the VPP and what meaning the women put in it. To collect empirical data interviews with open questions were used that opened up for conversation and the possibility to understand a range of experiences and nuances of meanings. The findings indicate that the majority of the women handed over the VPP to their husband or a male relative. The reason why is the families’ pressure on them to adjust to Purdah and seclusion, too much domestic work, lack of education, or because of the attitude among men and women both that business is a male domain. The study shows that women mostly gained some prestige. Also, they got a greater self-esteem to meet strangers since the VPP made them meet more people. But it has also brought quarrels and broken some friendships. All women are now more able to call family and relatives when they needed or wanted to and said that they have full access to use the mobile phone for this purpose. Still many are put in a dependency relation to others as they need help to use it. The women, however, are no longer owners of a status symbol because the mobile phone is more available for others today, but they are still known by name. Their homes do no longer attract visitors as it once did during the initiation of the program. There has also been a significant decrease in demand for the VPP that has lessened the income much and some have become even poorer from the VPP and women seldom benefitted personally from the profit. A few of the women mentioned that the family atmosphere had improved but most of them did not say that they had gained influence in the family as a result of the VPP.</p>

The purpose with this study is to find out how the mobile phone and the Village Pay Phone from Grameen Telecom have been implemented into women’s life in rural Bangladesh. It also aims to study how the women have become empowered by this program. The sample constitutes sixteen female owners. A purposeful cluster sampling was used to depict six villages from various parts of Bangladesh. When arriving in the villages a snowball sampling method was used to find female VPP owners. The sampling method was chosen to include a sample of various characteristics. The study has a hermeneutic phenomenological approach, which aims to find out how the women experience the VPP and what meaning the women put in it. To collect empirical data interviews with open questions were used that opened up for conversation and the possibility to understand a range of experiences and nuances of meanings. The findings indicate that the majority of the women handed over the VPP to their husband or a male relative. The reason why is the families’ pressure on them to adjust to Purdah and seclusion, too much domestic work, lack of education, or because of the attitude among men and women both that business is a male domain. The study shows that women mostly gained some prestige. Also, they got a greater self-esteem to meet strangers since the VPP made them meet more people. But it has also brought quarrels and broken some friendships. All women are now more able to call family and relatives when they needed or wanted to and said that they have full access to use the mobile phone for this purpose. Still many are put in a dependency relation to others as they need help to use it. The women, however, are no longer owners of a status symbol because the mobile phone is more available for others today, but they are still known by name. Their homes do no longer attract visitors as it once did during the initiation of the program. There has also been a significant decrease in demand for the VPP that has lessened the income much and some have become even poorer from the VPP and women seldom benefitted personally from the profit. A few of the women mentioned that the family atmosphere had improved but most of them did not say that they had gained influence in the family as a result of the VPP.

The rapid economic development in China has successfully drawn a worldwide attention and benefit its population, with a average 8 percentage GDP growth rate every year and 500 million people out of poverty. While a large number of people are seeking for the reason why economic achievement in China has been so dramatic and unprecedented, less people show solicitude for Chinese women`s condition and empowerment.    Women as a worldwide vulnerable group, their well-being need to be taken into consideration during the process of developing economy. In China, female population accounts for 48.47 percentage (633.2 million) of entire population. Under the big picture of economic prosperity, the author found that Chinese people`s living condition has advanced largely, the popularization of basic education and medical service has benefit the vast majority people, meanwhile, people can be more involved in political process to express their opinions. However, women are benefited disproportionately but still less empowered than men are. Moreover, since China is a geographically large country, the economic development has shown some regional characteristic, that means, in southeastern China, due to the convenient traffic condition, such as harbors, economic development process is faster than in northwestern China, where traffic and natural conditions are both weak. Would that cause a unequal empowered situation between women from different economic developed regions?   Women has been paid less attention through the history of China, let alone different conditions of women in different regions. In this thesis, the author will describe women`s different empowered situation in rural and urban regions of China, via a capability approach viewpoint, and discussion of whether there is a regional pattern will be based on (Dis) Empowerment model.

Gender equality and women empowerment are two of the most up-to-date concerns on the international arena today. Several methods are being adopted with the aim to allow women’s equal social, economic and political participation. Entrepreneurship has been highlighted as a useful tool to foster women’s empowerment and hence the promotion of entrepreneurship has become a prominent approach in modern development efforts.   In Uganda, women constitute the majority of the informal labour force and are widely engaged in micro-business activities. Thus, this ethnographically inspired research aimed to assess if entrepreneurship can contribute to increased social power among female entrepreneurs in urban and suburban Kampala, Uganda. To do this, John Friedmann’s (Dis)empowerment model has been used as the main frame of interpretation. To fit into the context of women, it has been complemented with a gender analysis in order to identify the structural inequalities that may constrain the empowering impact of entrepreneurship.   This research was carried out as a field study in Kampala City and in three Kampala suburbs: Kyaliwajjala, Kireka and Kinawataka. It was financed by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and was conducted during nine weeks in September-November 2014. In total, 45 interviews were carried out with local business women as well as with local representatives and stakeholders in women entrepreneurship and women empowerment.   The conclusions drawn from this study is that entrepreneurship has contributed to increased social power among the women participating in this research, but that traditional gender norms and structures can constrain the empowering process. Greater economic responsibilities have not eased women’s obligations in the domestic sphere and thus created a double burden.