OBJECTIVE. To explore the access to and utilization of health and social services by immigrant undocumented women in Spain from the perspective of several actors. METHODOLOGY. A systematic review of scientific literature (Study I); qualitative inquiry involving personal interviews with 7 midwives of a rural area of Segovia (Study II) and 12 immigrant undocumented women working and living in Lleida (Study III); and Critical Discourse Analysis of the Health Law and Ethic Codes of Nurses (Study IV). RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS There is a knowledge gap in scientific literature in Spain regarding access and utilization of social and health services specifically oriented to undocumented immigrant women. Immigrant undocumented women underutilize social and health care services -including the service of midwifery- due to reasons linked to poor working conditions and specific barriers for being immigrant undocumented women. Nurses suffer a mismatch between their ethical and professional commitment and the application of the general law. / OBJETIVO. Explorar el acceso y utilización de las mujeres inmigrantes indocumentadas de los servicios sociales y de salud en España desde distintas perspectivas. METODOLOGÍA. Revisión de alcance de la literatura científica (Estudio I); metodología cualitativa mediante entrevistas personales a 7 matronas de un área rural de Segovia (Estudio II) y 12 inmigrantes indocumentadas en Lleida (Estudio III); y Análisis Crítico del Discurso de la Ley sanitaria y los Códigos Éticos enfermeros (Estudio IV). RESULTADOS/CONCLUSIONES. En la literatura científica no hay estudios sobre el acceso y utilización de los servicios sociales y de salud específicos con mujeres inmigrantes indocumentadas en España. Estas mujeres infrautilizan los servicios de sociales y de salud, incluyendo los servicios de matronería, debido a unas condiciones laborales precarias y a barreras específicas por ser mujeres inmigrantes indocumentadas. Las enfermeras se enfrentan a un dilema entre su compromiso ético y profesional y la aplicación de la ley sanitaria. / OBJECTIU. Explorar l’accés i ús que fan dels serveis socials i de salut les dones immigrants indocumentades en Espanya des de diverses perspectives. METODOLOGIA. Revisió d’abast de la literatura científica (Estudi I); metodologia qualitativa amb entrevistes personals a 7 llevadores d´una àrea rural de Segovia (Estudi II) i 12 dones immigrants indocumentades a Lleida (Estudi III); i Anàlisi Crític del Discurs de la Llei sanitària i els Codis Ètics infermers (Estudi IV). RESULTATS/CONCLUSIONS. En la literatura científica no hi ha estudis sobre l´accés i utilització dels serveis socials i de salut específics amb dones immigrants indocumentades a Espanya. Aquestes dones infrautilitzen els serveis socials i de salut, incloent els serveis de llevadora, per raó d´unes condicions laborals precàries i per enfrontar-se a barreres específiques vinculades a ser dones immigrants indocumentades. Les infermeres tenen que triar entre el seu compromís ètic i professional o l´aplicació de la llei sanitària.

名古屋大学博士学位論文 学位の種類 : 博士(比較法学)(課程) 学位授与年月日:平成24年9月27日

This dissertation is the first study in Lithuania to analyse Lithuanian trust of property law. Up to now, no one in legal studies has made any complex academic attempt to examine the genesis of property trust law, to discuss the characteristics of subjects and objects of this property trust law or to identify the most commonly occurring problems. There has been neither any thorough academic study concerning the sub-institutions of property trust law, i.e. the right to hold public property or private property in trust. The aim of the research is to comprehensively and systematically analyse, using foreign examples for comparison, the Lithuanian property trust law model, studying the aforementioned property law both as a coherent institution and as an amalgamation of two legal institutions intended for realisation of public and private ownership respectively. The dissertation also aims to reveal certain theoretical and practical issues and deficiencies in the regulation of property trust law in Lithuania, suggesting ways of filling gaps in Lithuanian law on both public and private property trust cases. / Ši disertacija yra pirmasis tyrimas Lietuvoje, analizuojantis Lietuvos turto patikėjimo teisę. Lietuvos teisės moksle iki šiol nebuvo nei vieno kompleksinio mokslinio bandymo, tirti turto patikėjimo teisės prigimtį, aptarti šios daiktinės teisės objektus, subjektų ypatumus, įvardinti dažniausiai pasitaikančias problemas. Nėra išsamių mokslinių tyrimų ir dėl turto patikėjimo teisės atskirų subinstitutų, t. y. dėl viešojo bei privataus turto patikėjimo teisės. Šio tyrimo tikslas yra išsamiai ir sistemiškai, remiantis užsienio teisės patirtimi, išanalizuoti Lietuvos turto patikėjimo teisės modelį, tiriant minėtą daiktinę tiek kaip vientisą institutą, tiek kaip dviejų teisinių institutų, skirtų viešosios bei privačios nuosavybės įgyvendinimui, samplaiką, atskleidžiant teorines bei praktines turto patikėjimo teisės reglamentavimo Lietuvoje problemas ir trūkumus, pasiūlant teisinio reglamentavimo spragų užpildymo būdus tiek viešojo, tiek privataus turto patikėjimo teisės atvejams.

This thesis addresses the relationship between the GATT/WTO and environmental protection, particularly the relevance of its principles to trade-related environmental measures (TREMs). / Environmentalists generally believe that the GATT/WTO is not relevant to TREMs, arguing that the GATT does not have the mandate to deal with environmental issues. In addition, environmentalists believe that the GATT rules on non-discrimination and "like products" could act as barriers for individual countries attempting to adopt TREMs. The prohibition against creating "trade barriers" could result in the same barriers. Economists, on the other hand, generally believe that the GATT/WTO is relevant to TREMs. They argue that nothing in the GATT/WTO prohibits individual countries from adopting TREMs provided that the measures are primarily designed to achieve environmental objectives and are adopted in a legitimate manner. They also contend that the GATT does not prohibit individual countries from employing TREMs when they deal with a "product" standards. / This thesis examines relevant GATT/WTO principles and cases, studies and observations made by experts on the issue of trade and environmental protection. The examination confirms the relevance of many GATT/WTO principles to TREMs, which give individual countries the flexibility to adopt TREMs. This thesis also confirms the need for new interpretations and rules to make the existing principles more relevant to TREMs. It would suffice to reinterpret and to develop several new rules.

This dissertation offers a dialectical analysis of law creation insofar as legal rules and processes of social ordering are the products of interactions among agents inter se and between agents and legal institutions. This perspective demands that agents be regarded as contributing to the creation of law governing their own lives. The agents involved are not restricted to legal officials but include all persons with the capacity to exercise agency. This perspective of law creation is defended on the basis that the dialectical analysis permits a better comprehension of the relationship between law and morality. The normative defence of the dialectical approach is based on four inter-related arguments. First, law creation is an instantiation of moral practice for "full insiders", these being agents committed to norms and intrinsic goods. Secondly, the conflicts ensuing from the interactions of agents tend to imbue legal authority with some degree of legitimacy through normative compromises. Thirdly, as the agents involved in this process exercise political freedom, they have the capacity to exercise judgement in mediating between a commitment to institutional structures that facilitate moral practice and a commitment to moral reasoning that can counsel the instigation of change. Lastly, even in the case of "truncated insiders", agents who are not committed to moral reasoning, there are certain weak prudential checks that exist within the games they play inhibiting unfair processes and unjust outcomes.

From an economic perspective, globalization is dismantling national barriers to entry and is transforming domestic markets into a global market. To meet the challenges posed by the integration of markets, corporations are joining forces with their former competitors to expand their presence in the global market. Rapid growth in transnational mergers to create global corporations is one of the key features of globalization. As multinational corporations are uniting, so should antitrust agencies that regulate them. / Antitrust agencies around the world are realizing that the consumers whom they are mandated to protect are being adversely affected by decisions made beyond their national borders. By using the "effects" test, countries bring within their jurisdiction review of any merger or acquisition involving foreign companies with significant revenue or assets within their jurisdiction. / The proliferation of merger control laws, in the absence of a mechanism to coordinate the transnational merger review, places an unnecessary burden on merging parties, and runs the risk of divergent outcomes, which at times cause friction among nation-states. / Both to alleviate unnecessary burdens imposed on corporations and to reduce inefficiencies produced by the disparate review of a single transnational merger by several countries, this thesis proposes an International Merger Control Regime integrated into the WTO. The proposal focuses on ways to operationalize a "Lead Jurisdiction" model of oversight rather than on the creation of a new supranational decision-making agency. WTO dispute settlement and arbitration would be used to resolve conflicts arising out of the inability of a Lead Jurisdiction to arrive at an outcome satisfactory to other significantly affected jurisdictions.

Launch activities are increasingly performed by private entities and launch participants deal with a complex legal environment. The Space Treaties provide a framework placing liability for non-governmental activities on the launching State and the duty to authorize and supervise them on the appropriate State. Launch participants are subject to specific regulation in certain States or are under institutional State control in others. They also have to comply with general domestic law of liability. Limited insurance availability led to the development of contractual risk allocation techniques, the inter-participants waivers of liability and claims, inspired by NASA practice. / This thesis offers a contribution with the synthesis of information, so far scattered, on today's legal environment, providing an overview of the norms at play in this field to allow the grasp of their relative weight and interactions in the assessment of liability risk attached to launch activities. / This synthesis reveals a legal framework presently lacking the predictability necessary for an efficient liability risk management: (1) inter-participants waivers of liability suffer the weaknesses of all limitation of liability clauses; they also lack uniformity and implementation rigor; (2) the Space Treaties contain ambiguous terms preventing predictable determination of the State liable for damage and the State obliged to authorize and supervise launch activities, and do not reflect the de facto primary liability of launch operators. / This thesis offers a contribution to the advancement of legal work on these problems by suggesting new approaches emphasizing the need for: (1) harmonization of inter-participants waivers of liability to improve their consistency and validity and ensure identical flow-down by all participants; (2) improvements of the Outer Space Treaty, Liability Convention and Registration Convention for their implementation to non-governmental launch activities. / Although the launch community is small and the need for lawmaking is not as compelling as in fields such as aviation. Nevertheless, tailored adjustments to the present legal framework are required and proposed in this thesis through model clauses and an international instrument, both of which are submitted for further thinking and contribution by those sharing the opinion that creative lawmaking is now necessary to prepare for tomorrow's endeavors.

Migration law and policy are clearly committed to the state (and its citizens) at the expense of the migrant. Receiving societies regard the migrant as a threat to the order and unity of national identity but the migrant is, in fact, also constitutive of that order and unity. This reveals a paradoxical relationship of the migrant to law. Questions of identity and alterity occupy a pivotal place in investigations related to the treatment of the migrant subject. Identity is a construct which is indeterminate and relational. This construct of the migrant brings to the fore the dependence of the migration system on the image of the migrant as repressed and marginalized. Within the international legal system, definitional discourses regarding forced/voluntary migration also have serious identity and policy related implications. The exclusion of migrants who does not fit within the narrow “boxes” of international migration law occurs precisely because international law cannot develop its ideal self-image without a caste of international refusés. Like the nation-state, international migration law achieves parts of its legitimacy through exclusion. International migration law also provide an escape mechanism which the state can access in order to advance its political goals. Both domestically and internationally, migrants are subjected by the legal discourse on migration to a form of violence which suppresses their humanity. Migrants are commandeered to help constitute the identity of international law and national societies. This de-ethicalizes the relationship with the migrant by negating the migrant’s autonomous nature. It therefore becomes necessary to introduce the ethics of alterity in law and to move the migrant back into the centre of the migration discourse. A significant way to do this is to be aware of the violence which is perpetrated upon the migrant and to work towards the elaboration of a less state-centred system open to constant reconsideration. / Le droit et les politiques migratoires servent de manière délibérée l’intérêt de l’État (et de ses citoyens) au dépend de celui des migrants. Les sociétés d’accueil considèrent que le migrant est une menace à l’ordre et à l’unité de l’identité nationale mais le migrant est en en fait nécessaire pour la constitution d’une identité nationale ordonnée et unitaire. Ceci démontre la relation ambiguë entre le droit et le migrant. Les questions d’identité et d’altérité occupent une place centrale dans toute réflexion portant sur le traitement juridique du migrant. L’identité est un construit vague et relationnel et le système migratoire repose sur une image du migrant réprimé et marginalisé. Au sein du système juridique international, les discours portant sur la définition de la migration forcée/volontaire ont aussi des implications identitaires et politiques. En effet, l’exclusion du migrant qui ne correspond pas aux critères étroits du droit international des migrations est possible précisément parce que le droit international ne peut maintenir une image idéale sans une caste mondiale de refusés. Au même titre que l’État nation, le droit international des migrations construit donc, du moins partiellement, sa propre identité à travers des mécanismes d’exclusion. Le droit international des migrations constitue aussi une échappatoire utile pour faire avancer les visés politiques de l’État. Ainsi, à tous les niveaux, national et international, le migrant est assujetti à une forme de violence qui nie son humanité. Puisque le migrant existe aux yeux de l’État uniquement pour renforcer l’identité de celui-ci et du droit international, la relation entre le droit et le migrant s’en trouve vidée de son contenu éthique, notamment en refusant d’accorder au migrant toute autonomie. Il s’avère alors nécessaire d’introduire l’éthique de l’altérité dans le droit et de ramener le migr

The present dissertation is a multi-disciplinary project that examines the relationship between human rights and development in Africa, with specific focus on Ghana. The proposition, which is expressed in a theory of community emancipation, is that human rights hold the key to the attainment of sustainable holistic development. The theory of community emancipation represents the Akan notion of rights which speak to the lived experiences (traditional, colonial and post-colonial) of Akan peoples. It is offered as a contribution to the evolution of distinct African notions of rights. The Akan perspective on rights aims at making human rights a more accessible concept that people can relate to and to use as an effective tool to attain development. The theory is used in a general context to analyse Western development foreign policies implemented in post-colonial Africa with the active collaboration of African leaders. It concludes that these policies "failed" due to the lack of attention to human rights. Consequent to this is the creation of a culture of rights abuse in Africa and the unfounded claim propagated by African leaders that human rights does not matter for Africans, and is not part of the African culture. The work also examines Western development policies in the post-Cold War era and concludes that in general the development NGO concept is not conducive to the promotion of sustainable holistic development in Africa. The solution, among others, lies in local human rights NGOs collaborating in a new relationship with their foreign counterparts; and both given a more prominent role to play in the political, as well as the economic liberalisation processes. / The significant contribution of the work, inter alia, is linking the discourses in African philosophy and African notions of rights, which had hitherto gone their separate ways, through the theory of community emancipation. This results in the construction of new paradigm for examining rights in Africa from a developmental context. It is expected that this contribution could help enrich the international human rights discourse, contribute to plugging the loopholes and make the implementation of human rights more relevant and effective in Africa.

The thesis reviews the 50 year history of the GATT/WTO trading system in order to assess how far the system has achieved the goals and objectives of its principal founders, with a view to recommending proposals for completing the same in the context of the next major round of WTO negotiations. Emphasis is laid throughout the work on actions which need to be taken to ensure that the world trade system has a set of integrated rules which address the realities of increasing international economic interdependence. The conclusion of this work incorporates various steps that can be taken towards achieving this objective. / A principal thesis of this work is that the actual achievements of the GATT/WTO system are less than those intended by Cordell Hull, the principal founder of what became the initial GATT arrangements, and, accordingly, a series of proposals are advanced to complete Hull's original vision. Most significantly, important elements of the failed Havana Charter, which was to establish the International Trade Organization (ITO), have yet to be incorporated into present GATT/WTO disciplines. In particular, the Havana Charter included provisions dealing with investment and private restraints on trade, which are now indispensable, as contemporary restrictions on the ability to truly contest international markets originate more from the internal structuring of domestic markets, rather than from border measures. This reality has been recognized in regional trading arrangements, and, accordingly, an examination of the principal non-multilateral trading systems is made in this respect, particularly the European Union, and the NAFTA. Based on a review of the need for the same, this work proposes new WTO disciplines for investment and competition policy, as well as a series of proposals to facilitate regulatory reform in services, the area in which they are most needed. Finally, a series of proposals are made to restructure the basic WTO agreements to remove inconsistencies which have evolved in the last 50 yews, and to facilitate truly effective P. market access, i.e. the ability to actually contest international markets. Collectively, these proposals are fundamental prerequisites to the orderly operation of the contemporary world trading system.