This doctoral dissertation examines how the financialization of the economy affects the everyday lives of low and moderate-income (LMI) urban residents in the United States. Specifically, the research presented in this dissertation provides a critical examination of the democratization of finance by examining financial empowerment programs designed to promote financial inclusion for LMI residents in Boston, Massachusetts. These programs were created in the wake of the financial crisis to promote financial security by training participants to manage their debt, to monitor their credit scores, to avoid predatory lending, and to invest using mainstream financial products. This research has two significant findings. First, this research shows how nonprofit organizations teach LMI adults to use credit and accumulate assets in order to compensate for wage stagnation and the erosion of state assistance. I argue that the practice of financial coaching asks individuals and households to accept the burden of debt to ensure the reproduction of society; rather than the city, state and federal governments being responsible for ever-expanding welfare rolls in a time of intensifying inequality, financial literacy and capability initiatives encourage people who are living in poverty to gain access to consumer credit in order to survive. As consumer and municipal debt grows unabated, this finding offers new insights into the scalar interdependence that finance engenders between the city and its residents. Second, this research illustrates how nonprofit financial empowerment programs are helping financial institutions expand their reach into new consumer markets. This suggests that the active growth of the financial sector is contingent upon making previously unfit market actors into responsible debtors in the pedagogical spaces of financial inclusion. This research militates against any easy assumptions about the normative ‘good’ of financial inclusion and advances scholarship on urban governance, the welfare state, financialization and the geographical study of inequality.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / This thesis contributes to debates regarding the future of organised labour, the ability of global civil society networks to influence the practices of powerful institutions, and the value of non-state forms of corporate regulation. It focuses on the anti-sweatshop movement’s campaigns targeting three transnational corporations (TNCs) which design and market sportswear—Nike, Reebok and Adidas. These three TNCs are members of the Fair Labour Association (FLA), a voluntary, non-state regulatory system negotiated between participating companies and a number of civil society organisations. The thesis assesses how the FLA’s processes, the companies’ own labour programs, and interventions by labour activists are combining to influence sportswear workers’ rights to form trade unions and bargain collectively. The thesis is based on decentred, institutionalist characterisations of the firm and its regulation. From this perspective, an effective system for regulating corporate labour practices must powerfully insert discourses promoting workers’ rights into the internal debates, power plays and resulting regularised processes which produce corporate behaviour. Whereas many theoretical approaches portray voluntary regulatory initiatives as antithetical to state regulation, this thesis is influenced by those institutionalist thinkers who argue that effective voluntary initiatives can help build the political will necessary for regulatory reform by states. Research methods employed in this thesis include interviews with Indonesian workers, FLA board members, company representatives and anti-sweatshop activists. This research indicates labour compliance staff within Nike, Reebok and Adidas have made serious, if inconsistent, efforts to persuade suppliers to respect labour rights. These efforts have been undermined by their colleagues in buying departments, who have intensified demands that suppliers produce cheaply and quickly. Partly as a result of this tension, the labour programs of Nike, Reebok and Adidas have only contributed to improved respect for trade union rights in a relatively small number of sportswear factories, and in some cases these improvements have proved fragile. The FLA’s regulatory system relies on participating TNCs threatening to cut orders if their suppliers fail to comply with the FLA’s labour code. This thesis argues that if TNC compliance staff could also offer incentives—such as higher prices or more stable, long-term ordering relationships—then it would enhance their ability to convince suppliers to respect trade union rights. Such a change would require TNCs to give a higher priority to labour rights than to cost-minimisation. Unfortunately, within Nike, Reebok and Adidas, labour rights and other ethical agendas appear to be in the process of being subsumed into a more dominant discourse associated with profit-making and growth, so that labour compliance staff must establish the “business case” for each aspect of their regulatory work. The anti-sweatshop movement has a loose, networked form of organisation which has proved remarkably successful in putting public pressure on sportswear corporations to accept responsibility for labour conditions in their supply networks. If the movement wants to see substantial improvements in respect for sportswear workers’ trade union rights, then it needs to persuade sports companies to go further and make costly improvements to their labour rights programs. Relatively broad agreement across the movement on a system of rating companies’ progress would likely help achieve this ambitious goal, not least by offering opportunities for re-invigorating the movement itself.

In the context of a peripheral, small and largely resource-based economy, New Zealand’s economic policy makers have for long faced the key challenge of influencing global connections of local actors in value-adding activities. This dissertation seeks to interpret the nature and trajectories of governance activities relating to economic processes in Auckland, New Zealand’s largest city-region, in the 1990’s and 2000’s. This period, a time of neoliberalising political-economic conditions following intensive economic restructuring in the 1980s, saw a re-entry of central government to the governing landscape of Auckland. The research focuses on how regional actors such as the Auckland Regional Growth Forum, the Auckland Regional Economic Development Strategy and the business-driven initiatives of ‘Competitive Auckland’, ‘Committee for Auckland’ and the ‘Knowledge Wave’ conferences, gradually became aligned with an emerging governmental project from central government that re-defined perceptions of and expectations about Auckland’s economic role. The research approach is informed by several literatures, especially those of the regulation, actor-network and governmentality schools. The different questions that spring from these literatures enable scrutiny of Auckland’s institutional developments in terms of the identification of interdependencies amongst governing interests, the nature and degree of mediation of investment processes from institutional experimentation and the possible emergence of effects from new governance arrangements. The thesis situates and uses the policy and academic positioning of the researcher to develop methodologies to interrogate the emergence of the material and discursive dimensions of the regional economic governance framework of Auckland. This thesis argues that ongoing institutional experimentation has been both a pre-cursor to and an active ingredient in the re-appearance of the New Zealand central state in Auckland’s economic governance. Importantly, governing is increasingly complex; and about mobilising a range of actors by influencing their perceptions about governing and investment goals through discursive governance practices. In this context, current socio-economic interventions can be best understood as contingent assemblages of governing resources, producing discursive alignments of interests that lead to a re-working of processes and practices of the state-regulatory apparatus. The effects of the institutional developments on private investment decisions are largely unknown however. While the emerging institutional framework for economic governance involving Auckland is increasingly embracing Auckland’s globalising character, influencing the city-region’s economic participation in the globalising world economy may be harder to achieve as a political project than current policy rhetoric implies. Theoretically, this research challenges territorial conceptualisations of political economic management and contributes to the wider development of a relational-institutional framework for understanding sub-national economic governance. Auckland, globalising economic processes, economic governance, state, institutions, policy, knowledge, contingency, regulation, discourses

<p>Uppsatsen syftar till att beskriva, analysera och förstå kött- och charkindustrins koncentration i Slakthusområdet i Stockholm och vad området innebär för dess företag. Uppsatsen är en fallstudie och bygger på 18 intervjuer med representanter från företag, föreningar och förvaltningar i, och med anknytning till, Slakthusområdet. Vidare bygger den på teorier om agglomerationer och kluster. Utvecklingen av området kopplas till två drivkrafter i form av Stockholms stad och tillgången på råvaror och specialiserade lokaler. Slakthusområdet har kommit att bli ett nav eller en knutpunkt för kött, chark och andra livsmedelsprodukter. Den fysiska och sociala närheten i området medför många positiva egenskaper vilket genererar en trygghet för företagen. Som helhet har det skapat möjligheter och en förmåga hos företagen i Slakthusområdet att hålla en hög flexibilitets- och servicenivå. En förmåga som informanterna framhåller som sina respektive företags främsta konkurrensfördel och framgång.</p>

No description available.

<p>Sverige genomförde två stora kommunindelningsreformer under 1900-talet. Den ena varstorkommunreformen som kom 1952, och den andra var den så kalladekommunblocksreformen som kom 1974. Kommunreformen minskade antalet kommuner tillmindre än hälften och syftet var att varje kommun skulle kunna bära sina egna omkostnadergenom att skatteunderlaget skulle vara tillräckligt stort. Kommunerna i Halland var även de iolika grad involverade i kommunreformen och inställningen till denna varierade mellankommunerna. Det är då intressant att undersöka vilka skälen och attityderna tillkommunreformerna har varit, eftersom de bidragit till att ge en bild av samhället och denkommunpolitik som fördes i Halland vid tiden för sammanläggningarna samt att se om dethar skett en förändring över tid mellan förändringarna.Syftet med den här uppsatsen har varit att undersöka vilka attityderna och problemen vari Halland, och om de har varierat från den ena kommunreformen till den andra samt försökage en bakgrund till medborgarnas inställning.</p>

<p>Denne avhandlinga handler om hvordan meieribedrifter arbeider med nyskaping. De fleste norske meieribedrifter er en del av meierisamvirket, Tine, som karakteriseres ved å ha en hierarkisk organisasjonsstruktur og en standardisert industriell produksjon. For å forstå mer om nyskaping – eller innovasjon – i en bransje trengs mer enn kunnskap om bedriftenes indre forhold. Det er nødvendig å studere relasjoner og produkter i hele produksjonskjeden fra bonde til forbruker for å forstå endringer i meieribransjen. Ut fra dette er fire problemstillinger drøftet i avhandlinga:</p><p>1. Hvordan blir nyskaping organisert i meieribedrifter som er integrert i større innovasjonssystemer?</p><p>2. Hvordan påvirker lokale forhold nyskapingsprosesser i meieribedrifter?</p><p>3. Hvordan blir ulike kvaliteter innvevd i nye produkter fra meieribedrifter som arbeider med nyskaping?</p><p>4. Hvordan påvirkes nyskaping i meieribedrifter av øvrige ledd i verdikjeden for melk?</p><p>Det er ofte ei lang rekke aktører som deltar i nyskapingsprosesser, og det er mange aktiviteter og handlinger som skal koordineres. Dette innebærer ofte ei brytning med gammel praksis, det vil si med etablerte konvensjoner og legitimeringsregimer. Nye handlinger som utvikles til en ny praksis må legitimeres i nye konvensjoner. Det innebærer ikke nødvendigvis et totalt brudd med etablerte konvensjoner eller et brudd med alle konvensjoner, men snarere må det oppnås kompromisser. Flere av eksempelbedriftene som er studert, arbeidet med mer radikale skifter, eller i det minste ”motstrøms” i forhold til de dominerende strategiene i bransjen. Slikt arbeid skaper også større potensial for konfrontasjoner og byr derfor på store utfordringer med å finne kompromisser. Den nye kompromisspraksisen må aksepteres for at det skal oppnås framdrift i arbeidet. Analysen viser at evnen til å bryte med noen av de etablerte konvensjonene er viktig. Slike evner blir en form for agenter for å endre organisasjonen. Hvem disse agentene er og måten de fungerer på, kan imidlertid være forskjellig. Både personifiserte entreprenører i bedriften og sterke relasjoner utenfor bedriften kan være slike brytningsagenter. Det er derfor viktig å betrakte organisasjoner som åpne systemer. En organisasjon som behersker flere sett av konvensjoner og regimer, og som er fleksibel både i forhold til konfrontasjoner og til å finne nye kompromisser mellom regimene, vil ha lettere for å endre seg og dermed ha et større nyskapingspotensial. Dette er i stor grad tause prosesser og vanskelig å planlegge.</p><p>De lokale omgivelsene og relasjonene er ikke nødvendigvis viktige for bedriftens nyskapingsevne. Den territorielle utstrekninga av bedriftens relasjoner er ulik fra bedrift til bedrift, og relasjonene er viktige på ulike måter. Bedriftsspesifikke innovasjonsnett inneholder relasjoner som strekker seg over store distanser med varierende grad av tetthet eller nærhet. Bedriftene kan gjennom sine innovasjonsnett dermed inngå i flere produksjons- og innovasjonssystemer. Det betyr at systemene både er lokale og samtidig arena for agering over distanse. På mange måter kan meieribedrifter betraktes som ”isolerte øyer” i lokalsamfunnet, men samtidig er det gode eksempler på at lokale relasjoner – samarbeid mellom bedrift og lokalsamfunn – har vært avgjørende for nyskapinga.</p><p>En ost, som andre produkter, må forstås gjennom et sett av likeverdige kvaliteter, eller karakteristikker, som ikke rangeres innbyrdes. Det betyr for eksempel at en osts materielle innhold, dens smak og lukt, dens innpakning, historiske opprinnelse og markedsføring, alle er kvaliteter ved osten. I avhandlinga presenteres og drøftes en modell med ulike forståelsesmodus av utforma matkvaliteter (modes of designed qualities). Disse forståelsene konstrueres i relasjonene mellom produsenter og forbrukere.</p><p>Verdikjeden for melk preges både av strategisk maktutøvelse og uintenderte effekter av makt. Over tid er det utviklet en dominerende praksis for hvordan produksjon, distribusjon, produktutforming og markedsføring skal foregå. Denne dominansen preges av en standardisert masseproduksjon. Industrialiseringa i meierisamvirket la grunnlaget for dette, mens dagligvarekjedene har overtatt som pådrivere. Gjennom kjededannelsen på 1980- og 1990-tallet, har dagligvarehandelen klart å komme i en posisjon hvor de fungerer som dørvoktere til forbrukerne og er i stand til å strukturere næringsmiddelindustrien.</p><p>I sum betyr dette at den nyskapende meieribedriften er helt avhengig av de andre leddene i verdikjeden. Dette gjelder ikke bare for få å produktene ut til forbruker, men også på hvilken måte dette skal skje og hvilke kvaliteter ved produktene som skal framheves eller utvikles. Meieribransjen domineres av samvirkeselskapet Tine, men også innenfor en tilsynelatende ensartet organisasjon som Tine er det variasjon. I avhandlinga er bedrifter som bidrar til variasjon i fokus.</p><p>I avhandlinga legges det sterk vekt på aktører, handling og endring i og mellom organisasjoner, med andre ord: prosesser. Det er klare forbindelser til fagfeltet økonomisk geografi, sjøl om det trekkes veksler på flere samfunnsvitenskapelige fagfelt og slik sett gir avhandlinga et tverrfaglig preg. Vektlegginga av prosess og institusjonell tilnærming taler for en viss nærhet til evolusjonær økonomi.</p><p>De fire problemstillingene er brede i en forskningsmessig forstand, sjøl om det er foretatt avgrensinger innen hver problemstilling. Bredden begrunnes i behovet for ei helhetlig tilnærming til nyskaping. Det er ikke mulig å forstå nyskaping ut fra bare ett isolert perspektiv eller svært avgrenset spørsmål. I avhandlinga er det anvendt tre teoretiske perspektiver som utfyller hverandre for å gi et slikt helhetlig bilde: teori om innovasjonssystemer, teori om kunnskapsproduksjon i organisasjoner og konvensjonsteori. Konvensjonsteori, som har røtter i fransk økonomisk sosiologi, er orientert mot praksis, eller snarere ulike praksiser. Kollektiv handling og endring er ofte knyttet til møter mellom ulike praksiser, og dette er relevant i forhold til endring i organisasjoner, nettverk og systemer. Videre inkluderer konvensjonsteori like gjerne materielle ting eller natur som aktører, i tillegg til mennesker som individer eller i grupper. Dette er nødvendig når et produkt som melk inngår i nyskapingsarbeidet.</p><p>Med sitt prosess- og aktørorienterte perspektiv er avhandlinga et bidrag i en generell, teoretisk debatt om innovasjon og innovasjonssystemer. Det argumenteres for at meieribransjen, en bransje som vanligvis ikke blir framhevet i tilknytning til innovasjon, er relevant i forhold til denne teoretiske debatten. Analysen har overføringsverdi til bedrifter mer generelt, samt til landbrukssektoren ut fra at organiseringa av meieribransjen har store likhetstrekk med andre verdikjeder og bransjer som er landbruksbaserte. Overføringsverdi til bedrifter gjelder særlig bransjer hvor ”motstrømsbedrifter” arbeider med former for nyskaping som er marginale eller nærmest avvikende i forhold til de dominerende bedriftene i en bransje. Det er for eksempel relevant for bedrifter som inngår i større konsern eller strukturer som preges av industriell masseproduksjon organisert på en hierarkisk måte.</p><p>I avhandlinga er det anvendt flere metoder for å belyse samme spørsmål. Metodetriangulering er gjennomført på to nivå. For det første er eksempelstudier kombinert med kvantitative undersøkelser for å få ei bredere belysning av problemstillingene. For det andre er deltakende observasjon, feltsamtaler, intervjuer og dokumentanalyser kombinert i gjennomføring av eksempelstudiene. Det viktigste datagrunnlaget er hentet fra eksempelstudier av fire meieribedrifter (tre i Norge og en i Wales), intervjuer av nøkkelinformanter i verdikjeden for melk, en spørreundersøkelse blant ledere av meieribedrifter og en forbrukerundersøkelse.</p> / <p>This doctoral thesis investigates how dairy firms work with innovation. Most Norwegian dairy firms belong to the farmer-owned co-operative, Tine, which has a hierarchical organisational structure with standardised industrial production. To understand innovation in a business sector, we need more than knowledge about internal conditions in firms. It is necessary to study relations and products throughout the supply chain from farmer to consumer to understand changes in the dairy sector. From this point of departure, four research questions are explored and discussed in this thesis:</p><p>1. How is innovation organised in dairy firms which are integrated in large innovation systems?</p><p>2. How do local conditions influence processes of innovation in dairy firms?</p><p>3. How are different qualities embedded into new products from innovative dairy firms?</p><p>4. How do other actors in the supply chain for milk influence innovation in dairy firms?</p><p>Usually, a wide variety of actors participates in processes of innovation, and many activities and actions must be coordinated. This often entails a confrontation with old practice, i.e. with established conventions and modes of justice (‘orders of worth’ and ‘worlds’). New actions that develop into new practice must be justified in new conventions. This does not necessarily entail a complete break with old conventions, or a break with all old conventions, but rather a need for compromises. Several of the firms that have been studied worked with radical changes or at least with ‘reverse flow’ compared to the dominant strategies in the dairy sector. This kind of work creates greater potential for confrontations; to develop compromises is important but difficult. Accepting a new practice of compromises is essential to progress in work on innovation. The analysis in this thesis shows that capabilities to breach established conventions are crucial. These capabilities serve as agents to change organisations. Who these agents are and how they work may vary. Both personified entrepreneurs in the firm and strong relations outside the firm may be convention-breaking agents. Hence, it is important to consider organisations as open systems. An organisation that masters several sets of conventions and modes, and is flexible in relation both to confrontations and to finding new compromises between different modes of justice, will be more capable of changing and thus have greater potential for innovation. However, these are often tacit processes which are difficult to plan strategically.</p><p>Local surroundings and local relations are not necessarily important for the firm’s capacity for innovation. The territorial extent of the firm’s relations differs from firm to firm, and relations are important in different ways. A firm-specific network of innovation includes relations extending over long distances with various degrees of density or proximity. Through their network of innovation, firms may be involved in several systems of production and innovation. This means systems function both locally and as arenas for acting at a distance. In many cases, dairy firms can be considered as ‘isolated islands’ in the local community. However, there are good examples of how local relations, i.e. co-operation between the firm and the local community, have been crucial to innovation.</p><p>A cheese, like other products, must be interpreted through a set of qualities or characteristics that are not ranked against each other but are considered as a whole. The composition of a cheese as well as its taste, odour, packing, origin, and marketing are all examples of its qualities. In the thesis, a model of modes of designed qualities of food is presented and discussed. These modes are constructed in relations between producers and consumers.</p><p>Within the value chain for milk, both strategic power and unintended effects of power are found. Over time a dominant practice is developed, prescribing methods of production, distribution, design, and marketing. This practice is characterised by standardised mass production. The foundation for this development was created when dairy co-operatives were industrialised, while retailer groups have taken over as driving forces. Through the formation of chains in the 1980-90s, retailers have manoeuvred into a position where they are doorkeepers to the consumer market and can structure the food industry.</p><p>All in all, the innovative dairy firm is totally dependent on other actors in the value chain. This applies not only to the distribution of products to consumers, but also to methods, strategies, and qualities to be emphasised or developed. The Tine co-operative dominates the Norwegian dairy sector. However, there is wide variation even within a seemingly homogeneous organisation such as Tine. This thesis focuses on the firms that contribute to this variation.</p><p>Actors, action, and change – or processes – within or between organisations are emphasised in this thesis. Obvious relations to economic geography can be found, although the thesis draws on several other disciplines in the social sciences as well. The emphasis on process and the institutional approach indicates some common ground with evolutionary economics.</p><p>The four research questions raised in this thesis are broad, even if delimitations apply within each question. The main argument for this broad research approach is the need for a holistic perspective on innovation. It is not possible to understand innovation from an isolated perspective or with very narrow questions. In the thesis, three main theoretical approaches are applied: Theory on innovation systems, theory on knowledge creation in organisations, and convention theory. They are complementary theories that together provide a more holistic view. Convention theory, with roots in French economic sociology, is oriented towards practice, or rather towards a variety of practices. Collective action and change are often related to intersections between different practices, and this is relevant in relation to change in organisations, networks, and systems. Further, convention theory includes material things and nature as actors, in addition to individuals or groups of humans. This is important when a product such as milk is involved in innovation.</p><p>Through a perspective on processes and actors, the thesis contributes to a general theoretical debate on innovation and systems of innovation. The dairy sector is seldom emphasised in research on innovation. However, in this thesis it is argued that this sector is relevant in this theoretical debate. The analysis is of value both in relation to firms in general and to agri-food sectors in general, because the organisational set-up in the dairy sector is very similar to other agri-food sectors. Insights from this analysis can be transferred to firms in general, especially in sectors where ‘reverse flow firms’ work on marginal kinds of innovation or diverge from the dominant firms in the sector. This may be the case for firms within larger groups of companies or structures characterised by industrial mass production organised in a hierarchical way.</p><p>Several methods are applied to shed light on the research questions in this thesis. Method triangulation is carried out on two levels. First, case studies are combined with quantitative surveys to achieve a broader and general insight into the research questions. Second, participant observation, field conversations, interviews, and document analysis are combined in case studies. The most important empirical material has been derived from case studies of four dairy firms (three in Norway and one in Wales), interviews of key informants from the value chain of milk, a survey carried out among managers of dairy firms, and a consumer survey.</p>

<p>Studien grundar sig i hållbar utveckling anpassat på ett samhälle i form av Dubai. Den behandlar den hållbara utvecklingen och problematiserar Dubai som ett hållbart koncept. Den framhåller olika delar i ett samhälle som är viktiga att ta hänsyn till. Dessa områden redovisas och diskuteras kring. Det kritiska tänkandet är huvudtanken i studien, där det handlar om att kritisera och söka förståelse i vad det kan finnas för brister i ett samhälle och vad dessa kan få för konsekvenser för framtiden. Det innebär att undersökningen granskar relevanta delar och avgränsar sig genom att inte djupgående undersöka de olika aspekterna i ett samhälle. Studien uppmuntrar läsaren att vara kritisk genom att beröra delar i samhället som är viktiga för att dra slutsatser om kapaciteten att tillgodose människans och naturens behov. Det vi ibland anser vara fint och bra genom att se det med ögat, kan vi få en tvistande uppfattning om när vi diskuterar dess hållbarhet.</p><p>Materialet i studien är i form av litteratur om Dubais historia, ekonomi, politik och natur. Dokumentärer, artiklar, nyhetsrapporteringar och böcker har införlivats i studien. Dessa litterära källor är enbart valda för att få en inblick i Dubai och dess kapacitet att uppfylla ett hållbart koncept. Således är litteraturen avgränsad för att inte allt för djupt undersöka de enskilda delarna i ett samhälle, utan det handlar om att se dess samspel sinsemellan.</p><p>Materialet sammanställs för att avgöra vilka delar som är relevanta, och dessa delar har kopplats till ett hållbart förhållningssätt, där de olika delarna kopplas till hållbar utveckling för att kritiskt kunna diskutera dess hållbarhet. Exempelvis diskuteras energiförbrukningen från ett hållbart perspektiv. Detta fungerar som studiens tillvägagångssätt. </p><p>Det som framgår i studien är att hållbar utveckling är i all synnerhet ett diskutabelt ämne i Dubai då det råder hög produktivitet, hög energi förbrukning, förtäring av miljö och påverkande faktorer för det sociala livet som kan leda till segregation. Allt för snabb planering kan skapa negativa konsekvenser för framtiden och Dubais koncept där moderniseringen speglar vardagen kan visa sig vara en bristande idé. Resurser uppmärksammas också som en viktig aspekt i Dubais fall där man innehar goda resurser. Det framgår också att hållbar utveckling som förhållningssätt anpassat på Dubai är mycket diskutabelt.         </p>

No description available.

<p>In the context of democratisation in the early 1990s, the governments in Central and East Europe (CEE) had to decide how to deal with property that had been confiscated under state socialism. Nationalised housing and collectivised land were to a varying extent returned to former owners and their heirs by means of restitution, as well as being distributed to other citizens who were in possession of the users’ rights to such properties.</p><p>This thesis examines the spatial impacts, in terms of ownership patterns, of the way the redistribution of nationalised housing and collectivised land has been dealt with politically and at the local level in post-socialist Romania. It also locates the Romanian property reforms in relation to those of the rest of CEE. The impact of political directives on the property redistribution is analysed in relation to both structural influences, such as democratisation and antecedent property regimes, and implementation patterns in varied place-contexts. The thesis demonstrates that restitution was stifled due to disagreements between leftist and rightist political blocs, with the latter arguing for restitution whilst their opponents wrote the first restitution laws. A re-privatisation law allowed for the public sale of nationalised housing to tenants and thereby blocked the implementation of a restitution law, thus constituting a dilemma for constitutional democracy. In liberal place-contexts in West Romania, these obstacles to housing restitution were in part avoided. By contrast, land restitution was most widespread in the east, a stronghold of the left. This was because the legislation gives priority to restitution in areas of this kind, where smaller land-holdings dominated prior to 1945. The left-wing government pursued an electoral strategy of distributing small properties to a large number of citizens, and to current users in particular. This resulted in a fragmentation of historical property. </p>