Titanium (Ti) alloys have been commonly used in the aerospace industry, not only because they have a high strength-to-weight ratio (comparing to the steels) but also their satisfactory corrosion resistance. Furthermore, they can be assembled with the carbon fibre composite parts. However, conventional manufacturing methods cause high material scrap rate and require lots of machining to obtain the final shape and size, which increases both the manufacturing time and cost. In order to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of Ti parts, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has been developed. Rolled Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (rolled WAAM) is one of the AM processes. The main characteristics of this technology is the reduced β grain size to refine the alloy's microstructure. Both the ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of Ti alloy made by rolled WAAM are at least 10% higher than traditional wrought Ti. This project is to investigate the fatigue crack growth rates of the Ti-6Al-4V built by rolled WAAM process in both the longitudinal and transverse orientations to study the effect of rolling on fatigue crack growth rate of WAAM processed Ti. The project was carried out by testing the fatigue crack growth rates for 4 compact tension specimens. The test results of different orientations were compared with each other, and scatters in fatigue life and fatigue crack growth rate were found. Fatigue crack growth rate is lower in the longitudinal specimens. The results are also compared with those of the unrolled WAAM specimens tested in a previous project. It was found that rolling can significantly improve the fatigue crack growth behaviour in WAAM processed Ti, and can reduce the difference between the two orientations, i.e. achieving better isotropic material properties. Recorded scatters may be caused by the process induced residual stresses, error in measurement, and the test machine load range being much higher than the applied loads. More specimens can be tested to validate above observations further.

Cette thèse porte sur la fissuration par fatigue sous chargement variable en mode mixte I+II+III et sur les effets d'histoire induits par la plasticité confinée et les contraintes internes. Les essais réalisés montrent qu’il existe des effets antagonistes d’histoire du chargement à courte distance et à longue distance, que la forme de la séquence de chargement est cruciale et, par comparaison, que les effets de contact et de frottement sont d’importance moindre. Les contraintes internes jouent un rôle majeur sur la vitesse de fissuration par fatigue et sur le mode de fissuration. Une démarche a été mise en place pour étudier le comportement élasto-plastique d’une section représentative du front de la fissure par éléments finis. Pour ne retenir des calculs réalisés que le minimum d’information nécessaire, on se donne une approximation cinématique, le champ de vitesse est partitionné en composantes de modes I, II, III élastiques et plastiques, chaque composante étant caractérisée par un facteur d’intensité et une distribution spatiale fixe. Les calculs réalisés ont permis de sélectionner 7 trajets de chargement différents en mode I+II et en mode I+II+III, qui présentent les mêmes amplitudes pour chaque mode, les mêmes maxima, minima et valeurs moyennes. Ces trajets, censés être équivalents au sens des critères de rupture usuels, ne le sont pourtant pas lorsqu’on considère le comportement élasto-plastique du matériau et conduisent à des vitesses et des trajets de fissuration expérimentaux très différents les uns des autres. Les simulations numériques et la modélisation simplifiée sont en accord avec les résultats expérimentaux. Les calculs réalisés ont également permis de discuter le rôle des phases de chargement en mode III sur la fissuration. Le comportement du matériau étant non-linéaire, la direction du chargement nominal ne coïncide pas nécessairement avec celle de l’écoulement plastique. Ajouter une phase de chargement en mode III peut, dans certains cas, modifier très significativement le comportement de la fissure (direction de propagation, vitesse de fissuration, écoulement plastique). / This thesis deals with fatigue crack growth in non-proportional variable amplitude mixed mode I + II + III loading conditions and analyses the effects of internal stresses stemming from the confinement of the plastic zone in small scale yielding conditions. The tests showed that there are antagonistic long-distance and short-distance effects of the loading history on fatigue crack growth. The shape of loading path, and not only the maximum and minimum values in this path, is crucial and, by comparison, the effects of contact and friction are of lesser importance. Internal stresses play a major role on the fatigue crack growth rate and on the crack path. An approach was developed to analyze the elastic-plastic behavior of a representative section of the crack front using the FEA. A model reduction technic is used to extract the relevant information from the FE results. To do so, the velocity field is partitioned into mode I, II, III elastic and plastic components, each component being characterized by an intensity factor and a fixed spatial distribution. The calculations were used to select seven loading paths in I + II and I + II + III mixed mode conditions, which all have the same amplitudes for each mode, the same maximum, minimum and average values. These paths are supposed to be equivalent in the sense of common failure criteria, but differ significantly when the elastic-plastic behavior of the material is accounted for. The results of finite element simulations and of simulations using a simplified model proposed in this thesis are both in agreement with experimental results. The approach was also used to discuss the role of mode III loading steps. Since the material behavior is nonlinear, the nominal loading direction does not coïncide with the plastic flow direction. Adding a mode III loading step in a mode I+II fatigue cycle, may, in some cases, significantly modify the behaviour of the crack (crack growth rate, crack path and plasti flow).

Objetivos: determinar a resistência à flexão em três pontos (f), módulo de Weibull (m), coeficiente de susceptibilidade ao crescimento subcrítico de trinca (n) e tenacidade à fratura (KIC) de três cerâmicas usadas para confecção de infraestrutura (IE) de próteses parciais fixas (PPFs) (YZ- zircônia tetragonal parcialmente estabilizada por óxido de ítrio; IZ- cerâmica a base de alumina infiltrada por vidro e reforçada com zircônia; AL alumina policristalina) e duas porcelanas (VM7 e VM9); avaliar o efeito da configuração (uma, duas ou três camadas) nos valores de f e modo de fratura dos corpos-de-prova (CP); avaliar a influência do material de IE, do tamanho dos conectores e da ciclagem mecânica (CM) na carga de fratura (CF) e distribuição de tensões de PPFs; relacionar o comportamento mecânico dos materiais cerâmicos testados na configuração de barra e de PPF. Material e Método: Foram produzidos três tipos de CP em forma de barra (2mm x 4mm x 16mm): monolítico, duas camadas e três camadas. As IE das PPFs foram confeccionadas utilizando o sistema CAD-CAM e recobertas com porcelana. Os ensaios de f foram realizados em saliva artificial a 37ºC. Os valores de m e n foram determinados pela análise de Weibull e ensaio de fadiga dinâmica, respectivamente. As PPFs foram carregadas no centro do pôntico até a fratura. Oito PPFs de cada grupo foram submetidas a CM com freqüência de 2 Hz e carga de 140 N durante 106 ciclos e, posteriormente, ensaiadas até a fratura. A distribuição de tensões nas PPFs foi avaliada com análise de elementos finitos (AEF). Os princípios da fractografia foram utilizados para determinar o padrão de fratura e os valores de KIC. Os dados de f e CF foram analisados estatisticamente com Kruskal-Wallis e Tukey (95%). Resultados: A YZ obteve o maior valor de f (860 MPa) seguida dos materiais IZ (411 MPa) e AL (474 MPa) que não apresentaram diferença estatística. Os menores valores de f foram encontrados para as porcelanas (65 MPa). Os valores de m foram semelhantes para os materiais, com exceção dos grupos IZ e VM7, que apresentaram diferença significante. Os maiores valores de n foram encontrados para as cerâmicas YZ (76) e AL (72), seguidos pela IZ (54) e pelas porcelanas (40). A YZ apresentou o maior valor de KIC. O material submetido à tensão de tração durante o ensaio determinou o valor de f das estruturas. As PPFs de YZ com conector de 16mm2 suportaram os maiores valores de CF. Houve influência significativa do tamanho de conector para o material YZ. A CM não influenciou os valores de CF das PPFs. O padrão de distribuição de tensões foi semelhante entre as PPFs. Foi observada uma boa relação entre os valores de tensão de fratura dos materiais de IE em forma de barra e de PPF. Foram encontradas diferenças no modo de falha dos CP em forma de barra e de PPF. Conclusão: a YZ apresentou o melhor comportamento mecânico tanto na configuração de barra como de PPF. / Objectives: to determine the flexural strength (f), Weibull modulus (m), slow crack growth coefficient (n) and fracture toughness (KIC) of three ceramics used as framework materials for fixed partial dentures (FPDs) (YZ- yttria partially stabilized zirconia tetragonal polycrystals; IZ- alumina-based zirconia-reinforced glass infiltrated ceramic; AL alumina polycrystals) and two veneering porcelains (VM7 and VM9); to evaluate the effect of the specimen design (one, two or three layers) in the f and fracture mode; to evaluate the influence of the framework material, connector size and mechanical cycling (MC) in the fracture load (FL) and stress distribution of FPDs; to relate the mechanical behavior of the ceramic materials tested using bar-shaped specimens and FPDs. Materials and Methods: Bar-shaped specimens (2mm x 4mm x 16mm) were produced in three different designs: monolithic, bilayer and trilayer. FPD frameworks were built using CAD-CAM system and veneered with porcelain. Specimens were tested for three point bending in 37ºC artificial saliva. Weibull analysis and dynamic fatigue testing were used to determine m and n values, respectively. FPDs were tested with a load applied in the middle of the pontic. Eight FPDs of each group were subjected to MC using a frequency of 2Hz and load of 140N for 106 cycles and were subsequently loaded to failure. Stress distribution for FPDs was evaluated using finite element analysis (FEA). Fractography principles were used to determine the fracture mode and KIC values. f and FL data were analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis and Tukey (95%). Results: YZ had the highest f value (860 MPa) followed by IZ (411 MPa) and AL (474 MPa). Lower f values were observed for the porcelains (65 MPa). Except for IZ and VM7, m values were similar among the ceramic materials. Higher n values were found for YZ (76) and AL (72), followed by IZ (54) and the veneering materials (40). YZ presented the highest KIC value. The f values were influenced by the material subjected to tensile stress during testing. YZ FPDs with 16mm2 connector showed higher FL values. There was significant influence of the connector size on the FL values for YZ material. MC had no influence in the FL values for the FPDs. The stress distribution was similar for all FPDs. Considering the framework material, there was a good agreement between the fracture strength values obtained for bar-shaped specimens and FPDs. Different fracture modes were observed for bar-shaped specimens and FPDs. Conclusion: YZ presented the best mechanical performance in both bar-shaped and FPD specimen configuration.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a new solid-state welding process that shows great promise for use in the aerospace and transportation industries. One of the primary benefits of this process is that mechanical properties of the base material are not as severely degraded as they are with conventional fusion welding. However, fatigue crack initiation and growth properties of the resulting weld nugget are not fully understood at this time. The primary goal of this project is to characterize the fatigue crack growth properties of friction stir welds in 6061-T6 aluminum as relates to the microstructural evolution of the weld. This was accomplished by producing friction stir welds and testing fatigue crack growth response in different crack orientations with respect to the weld. In addition, residual stress measurements were conducted for all cases, using both the crack compliance and contour methods. The results from the methods were compared in order to evaluate the accuracy of each method. Being an immature technology, the potential for discovery of new applications for the FSW process exist. With this in mind, novel applications of the FSW process, including the addition of particles during welding were explored. The first step was the investigation of property changes that occur when secondary cast phases are refined using the FSW process. The FSW process successfully refined all secondary phases in A380 and A356, producing an increase in hardness. Next, methods for the creation of particle metal matrix composites using FSW will be investigated. Nano-scale alumina particles were successfully added to the matrix and homogenously distributed. Using multiple weld passes through the composite was found to increase the uniformity of particle distribution. However, the alumina particle composite failed to provide any statistically significant hardness increase over the base material. The FSW process was also evaluated for weldability of traditionally difficult alloy systems. FSW was found to show very good weldability for dissimilar cast and wrought alloys, as well as for high-pressure die castings. Lastly, the feasibility of friction stir welding/processing in repairing crack defects in complex structural members in combination with cold-spray technology was determined. Friction Stir processing was used on a cold spray 6061-T6 block, resulting in significant increases in hardness over the base material, as well as a reduction in porosity. In addition, FSP was shown to eliminate crack-type defects in cold spray materials, a finding that has important applications in part repair. The deliverables of this work include an understanding of the fatigue crack growth response of FSW/FSP 6061-T6, as well as a feasibility study exploring novel uses for the FSW/FSP process. In addition, the deliverables include CNC code, fixtures, procedures, and analytical code for the creation and analysis of FSW/FSP joints. This will be important for the continuation of FSW/FSP work at WPI.

abstract: Multiaxial mechanical fatigue of heterogeneous materials has been a significant cause of concern in the aerospace, civil and automobile industries for decades, limiting the service life of structural components while increasing time and costs associated with inspection and maintenance. Fiber reinforced composites and light-weight aluminum alloys are widely used in aerospace structures that require high specific strength and fatigue resistance. However, studying the fundamental crack growth behavior at the micro- and macroscale as a function of loading history is essential to accurately predict the residual fatigue life of components and achieve damage tolerant designs. The issue of mechanical fatigue can be tackled by developing reliable in-situ damage quantification methodologies and by comprehensively understanding fatigue damage mechanisms under a variety of complex loading conditions. Although a multitude of uniaxial fatigue loading studies have been conducted on light-weight metallic materials and composites, many service failures occur from components being subjected to variable amplitude, mixed-mode multiaxial fatigue loadings. In this research, a systematic approach is undertaken to address the issue of fatigue damage evolution in aerospace materials by: (i) Comprehensive investigation of micro- and macroscale crack growth behavior in aerospace grade Al 7075 T651 alloy under complex biaxial fatigue loading conditions. The effects of variable amplitude biaxial loading on crack growth characteristics such as crack acceleration and retardation were studied in detail by exclusively analyzing the influence of individual mode-I, mixed-mode and mode-II overload and underload fatigue cycles in an otherwise constant amplitude mode-I baseline load spectrum. The micromechanisms governing crack growth behavior under the complex biaxial loading conditions were identified and correlated with the crack growth behavior and fracture surface morphology through quantitative fractography. (ii) Development of novel multifunctional nanocomposite materials with improved fatigue resistance and in-situ fatigue damage detection and quantification capabilities. A state-of-the-art processing method was developed for producing sizable carbon nanotube (CNT) membranes for multifunctional composites. The CNT membranes were embedded in glass fiber laminates and in-situ strain sensing and damage quantification was achieved by exploiting the piezoresistive property of the CNT membrane. In addition, improved resistance to fatigue crack growth was observed due to the embedded CNT membrane. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Mechanical Engineering 2018

Confront with the serious aging problem in aircraft structure field, the profession was tasked to unveil the mysterious in the mechanism of aging. In decades, many endeavours were put into different subjects such as, fatigue and crack calculation, corrosion analysis, reliability evaluation, life prediction, structure monitor and protection, structure repair, etc. In an effort of developing a reasonable model for life prediction and reliability evaluation, a wide range of topics in the field of aging structure reliability are reviewed. Many existing methods and tools are carefully studied to distinguish the advantages, disadvantages and the special application. With consideration of corrosion fatigue life, and based on the data obtained through investigating service status of the aging aircraft, a fuzzy reliability approach is proposed and presented. Initially, the thesis presents the literature review in the field, introducing the well-established theories and analysis tools of reliability and points out how such these methods can be used to assess the life and reliability of aging structure. Meanwhile, some characteristic parameters and distributions, as well as some crucial calculation formulations, procedures for aging aircraft reliability/risk analysis are given. Secondly, mathematical models are established to evaluate the initial crack size and to assess both randomness and fuzziness of the variables, which also successfully work out the probability of survival of existing structures over a time period and predict the operation time under specific reliability requirement. As a practical approach to the reliability of aging aircraft structure, example is presented and evaluated. While conduct the calculation, a few programs based on FORTRAN code are developed to solve the none-linear equation, to work out the multi dimension integration and to simulate the survival probability. The crack life prediction software AFGROW is selected for comparison of the calculation results, which also shows the appropriate accuracy of the established model. As conclusion, the effects of some variables including fuzzy factors on reliability and life of aging aircraft structure are finally discussed. It is apparent that the confines of the model are existing as fact because of the huge assumption of the parameters input and model uncertainties. Suggestions on further prospective research are proposed respectively.

<p>Many engineering components reach a finite fatigue life well above 10⁹load cycles. Some examples of such components are found in airplanes, automobiles or high speed trains. For some materials the fatigue failures have lately been found to occur well after 10⁷ load cycles, namely in the Very High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF) range. This finding contradicted the established concept of fatigue limit for these materials, which postulates that having sustained 10⁷ load cycles the material is capable of enduring an infinite number of cycles provided that the service conditions are unchanged. With the development of modern ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment it became possible to experimentally establish VHCF behaviour of various materials. For most of them the existence of the fatigue limit at 10⁷ load cycles has been proved wrong and their fatigue strength continues to decrease with increasing number of load cycles.</p><p> </p><p>One important group of materials used for the production of high performance components subjected to the VHCF is tool steels. This study explores the VHCF phenomenon using experimental data of ultrasonic fatigue testing of some tool steel grades. The causes and mechanisms of VHCF failures are investigated by means of high resolution scanning electron microscopy, and in relation to the existing theories of fatigue crack initiation and growth. The main type of VHCF origins in steels are slag inclusions.</p><p>However, other microstructural defects may also initiate fatigue failure. A particular attention is paid to the fatigue crack initiation, as it has been shown that in the VHCF range crack formation consumes the majority of the total fatigue life. Understanding the driving forces for the fatigue crack initiation is a key to improve properties of components used for very long service lives. Finite element modelling of VHCF testing was added as an additional perspective to the study by enabling calculation of local stresses at the fatigue initiating defects.</p><p> </p><p> </p>

Many engineering components reach a finite fatigue life well above 109 load cycles. Some examples of such components are found in airplanes, automobiles or high speed trains. For some materials the fatigue failures have lately been found to occur well after 107 load cycles, namely in the Very High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF) range. This finding contradicted the established concept of fatigue limit for these materials, which postulates that having sustained 107 load cycles the material is capable of enduring an infinite number of cycles provided that the service conditions are unchanged. With the development of modern ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment it became possible to experimentally establish VHCF behaviour of various materials. For most of them the existence of the fatigue limit at 107 load cycles has been proved wrong and their fatigue strength continues to decrease with increasing number of load cycles.   One important group of materials used for the production of high performance components subjected to the VHCF is tool steels. This study explores the VHCF phenomenon using experimental data of ultrasonic fatigue testing of some tool steel grades. The causes and mechanisms of VHCF failures are investigated by means of high resolution scanning electron microscopy, and in relation to the existing theories of fatigue crack initiation and growth. The main type of VHCF origins in steels are slag inclusions. However, other microstructural defects may also initiate fatigue failure. A particular attention is paid to the fatigue crack initiation, as it has been shown that in the VHCF range crack formation consumes the majority of the total fatigue life. Understanding the driving forces for the fatigue crack initiation is a key to improve properties of components used for very long service lives. Finite element modelling of VHCF testing was added as an additional perspective to the study by enabling calculation of local stresses at the fatigue initiating defects.

In-service inspections of high temperature pressureequipment show that weldments are prone to creep and fatiguedamage. It is not uncommon that severely damaged weldments arefound even before the design life of the component has beenreached. In order to improve this situation action has beentaken during the last decades, both from industry, universitiesand research institutes, aiming at an enhanced understanding ofthe weldment response. The work presented in this thesis focuses on numericalsimulation of weldment creep response. For a more profoundunderstanding of the evolution of creep damage in mismatchedlow alloy weldments, simulations are performed using thecontinuum damage mechanics, CDM, concept. Both design and lifeassessment aspects are addressed. The possibility to assessseam welded pipes using results from tests of cross-weldspecimens taken out from the seam is investigated. It is foundthat the larger the cross-weld specimen the better thecorrelation. The advantage to use the CDM concept prior to aregular creep analysis is also pointed out. In order to developthe CDM analysis, a modified Kachanov-Rabotnov constitutivemodel is implemented into ABAQUS. Using this model, a secondredistribution of stresses is revealed as the tertiary creepstage is reached in the mismatched weldment. Creep crack growth, CCG, in cross-weld compact tension, CT,specimens is investigated numerically where a fracturemechanics concept is developed in two steps. In the first one,the C*value and an averaged constraint parameter areused for characterising the fields in the process zone, whilein the second step, the creep deformation rate perpendicular tothe crack plane and a constraint parameter ahead of the cracktip, are used as characterising parameters. The influence oftype and degree of mismatch, location of starter notch as wellas size of CT specimen, is investigated. Results show that notonly the material properties of the weldment constituentcontaining the crack, but also the deformation properties ofthe adjacent constituents, influence the CCG behaviour.Furthermore, the effect of size is influenced by the mismatchof the weldment constituents. A circumferentially cracked girth weld with differentmismatch is assessed numerically by use of the fracturemechanics concept developed. The results show that type anddegree of mismatch have a great influence on the CCG behaviourand that C*alone cannot characterise crack tip fields.Corresponding R5 assessments are also performed. Comparisonwith the numerical investigation shows that the assumption ofplane stress or plane strain conditions in the R5 analysis isessential for the agreement of the results. Assuming the formerresults in a relatively good agreement for the axial stressdominated cases while for the hoop stress dominated cases, R5predicts higher CCG rates by an order of magnitude. <b>Keywords:</b>ABAQUS, constraint effect, continuum damagemechanics, creep, creep crack growth, design, design code,finite element method, fracture mechanics, life assessment,mismatch, numerical simulation, weldment

During the past few years, in comparison to traditional riveted structures, integral metallic skin stringer structures have played more and more important roles in aircraft design due to the fact they are economical and also have the ability to reduce weight. Their wide application in aircraft, especially large integral structures is limited because of the fact that they have shortcomings in damage tolerance performance. Hence, calculating the crack growth lives and improving the damage tolerance performance of integral structures by selecting appropriate materials or choosing rational structures is a critical work. Therefore the purpose of this thesis is to find effective analysis methods of integral metallic skin-stringer panels for the use in engineering. Cont/d.