Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer due to its high propensity to metastasize and resistance to current therapies. We have created a spontaneous mouse model of metastatic melanoma (Dct-Grm1/K5-Edn3) where metastasis to the lungs is 80% penetrant. The primary tumors of these mice present cellular heterogeneity with cells at varying levels of differentiation. The main goal of this study was to determine the metastatic potential of the primary tumor resident Tyrosinase positive cells and evaluate the dynamic phenotypic changes as those cells move from the primary tumors to the sites of metastasis. To accomplish this aim I crossed the Dct-Grm1/K5-Edn3 mice to CreERT2/mT/mG mice to indelibly label Tyrosinase cell populations within the primary tumor with Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) by topical application of 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4HT) at the tumor site. In vivo lineage tracing and characterization of GFP+ cells were performed in the metastatic lesions. In the 4HT treated Dct-Grm1/ K5-Edn3/Tyr-CreERT2/mT/mG mice, primary tumor derived Tyrosinase positive cells or their progeny (GFP+) established successful metastases in the distant organs indicating the tumorigenic capacity of the differentiated cell populations. Numerous metastatic melanoma cells were identified in the vasculature of the metastatic organs and established close association with the vascular endothelium. The intravascular cells lost pigmentation and did not express melanocytic markers; however, they mimicked endothelial cell properties and gained the expression of CD31 (also known as platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule PECAM-1) and vascular endothelial (VE)-Cadherin. In the lung metastatic foci, GFP+ cells resumed pigmentation production and lost the expression of endothelial cell markers. Evidence from other metastatic organs in the mice further supported the phenotypic plasticity of metastatic melanoma cells. The in vivo lineage tracing system established in the melanoma mouse model revealed tumor phenotypic plasticity and will be a powerful model to evaluate and help us understand the etiology and pathogenesis of melanoma metastasis. Further characterization of those more aggressive cells in melanoma will allow for the development of new prognostic tests and novel therapeutic strategies to eliminate metastasis.

Le resvératrol, stilbène produit naturellement dans les grappes de raisin, possède un pouvoir anti-tumoral caractérisé par ses effets pléïotropiques. La molécule s’est ainsi montrée capable d’inhiber la cancérogenèse en agissant à de multiples niveaux. Son incidence sur la croissance tumorale in vitro est généralement associée à une perturbation dans le cycle cellulaire et à une induction d’apoptose. De nombreuses molécules dérivées du resvératrol se sont montrées également efficaces pour moduler la croissance tumorale. Nous avons entrepris au cours de ces travaux de thèse d’étudier les activités biologiques de stilbènes issus d’une production de culture cellulaire de vigne. Les résultats de cette étude mettent en évidence une réduction de la croissance tumorale, dans un modèle d’étude in vitro de mélanome humain, pour le resvératrol et quatre oligomères de resvératrol bioproduits. L’étude plus approfondie de trois oligomères de resvératrol a permis de révéler des différences notables par rapport entre les effets du resvératrol et ses dérivés. En effet, bien que l’inhibition de la viabilité cellulaire des lignées cancéreuses s’accompagne d’une perturbation du cycle cellulaire pour le resvératrol et ses dérivés, elle se traduit différemment selon les composés. L’action du resvératrol sur le cycle cellulaire conduit à une nette augmentation des cellules en phase S, tandis que les oligomères de resvératrol n’induisent pas d’accumulation cellulaire franche dans une phase du cycle. De plus les oligomères de resvératrol présentent des capacités anti-invasives et anti-migratoires qui ne sont pas retrouvées chez le resvératrol. Enfin l’étude sur des fibroblastes normaux d’adultes (FNA) souligne que les dérivés du resvératrol diminuent la viabilité de cellules normales et cancéreuses à des concentrations similaires contrairement au resvératrol dont l’action est nettement inférieure sur les cellules saines. Cependant le pouvoir cytotoxique du resvératrol et de ses dérivés reste beaucoup plus faible chez les cellules normales. / Resveratrol, a natural stilbene found in the grapevine, exhibits pleiotropic antitumor activities. This molecule has been shown to inhibit the cancerogenesis processes at different levels. Its impact in tumor growth, in vitro, is generally associate with a disruption in cell cycle and an apoptosis induction. Various resveratrol derivatives appear also efficient to modulate tumor growth. We have studied, during this work, biological activities of stilbenes produced by grapevine cell cutures. Our results show a decrease in melanoma human growth, in vitro, for bioproduced resveratrol oligomers as well as resveratrol itself. Our experiments underline distinct effects between resveratrol and its derivatives. Indeed, all compounds disrupt cell cycle, but resveratrol induces S-phase arrest while resveratrol oligomers failed to induce a clearly phase arrest. Moreover, only resveratrol oligomers only have the ability to counteract invasive and migratory properties of melanoma cells. Finally, experiments performed in normal human fibroblasts study show that resveratrol oligomers present a similar potential to reduce viability of cancer as well as normal cells contrary to resveratrol which is less efficient in normal cells. However the cytotoxicity of resveratrol and its derivatives is significantly reduced on normal cells.

Doctorat en sciences médicales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer and one of the most difficult cancers to treat. Gene alterations identified in melanoma pointed to distinct molecular subsets of tumors with direct implications in therapeutic strategies. Activating mutations in NRAS, found in 20-30% of melanomas have been associated with aggressive clinical behavior and a poor prognosis. Nevertheless, there is lack of effective targeted therapies for NRAS mutant melanoma.Out of the few MEK inhibitors, pimasertib, a potent inhibitor of both MEK1 and MEK2 has showed promising results in NRAS mutant advanced melanoma. However, as a single agent and similar to other MEK inhibitors, it showed a limited clinical benefit due to its rather cytostatic effect and high toxicity. Our and other preliminary studies clearly indicated a stimulation of MITF (Microphthalmia associated transcription factor), the master transcription factor regulating cell growth and differentiation in the melanocyte, under MEK inhibition challenge. Thus, in a context where the tumor suppressor p53 is largely inactivated in melanoma, the stimulation of MITF may be the cause of the restraint cytotoxic effects of MEK inhibitors. Therefore, we aimed to further investigate the downstream MITF targets that can explain the resistance to the drugs.First, we showed that, MEK inhibition (by Pimasertib) led to a significant inhibition of cell proliferation but with a very limited effect on apoptosis that may be explained by the systematic MITF upregulation in all lines tested. Indeed, Mimicking MITF activation of expression by stimulating cAMP conferred resistance to MEK inhibition and interestingly up-regulated Bcl-2 expression. Further evidence was provided by the fact that, acquired resistance to MEK inhibition is associated with substantial upregulation of the anti-apoptotic signaling MITF/Bcl-2. More importantly, selective Bcl-2 inhibition by ABT-199 or Bcl-2 knock out using CRISPER/Cas9 system restores the sensitivity of NRAS mutant melanoma cells to MEK inhibition and breaks the acquired resistance.Given the known p53 regulating effect on Bcl-2, we evaluated p53 reactivation by PRIMA-1Met (APR-246) under MEK inhibition on the promotion of apoptosis in a panel of Q61NRAS mutant melanoma cells. Strikingly and similarly, this combination not only resulted in a synergistic effect to induce massive apoptosis but also broke resistance to MEK inhibitors both in cells with wild type or mutant p53 alike.In conclusion, we showed that the activation of cAMP/MITF/Bcl-2 pathway is a main anti-apoptotic mechanism associated with resistance to MEK inhibition in NRAS mutant melanoma. We propose drug combinations cotargeting MEK and other proteins regulating apoptosis -p53/Bcl-2- as a promising and clinically relevant therapeutic strategy to not only act in synergy to cause massive apoptosis but also to overcome resistance to MEK inhibitors in NRAS mutant melanoma / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques (Pharmacie) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

MITF (MIcrophthalmia-associated Transcription Factor) contrôle de multiples aspects de la physiopathologie du lignage mélanocytaire. Par des techniques de génomique haut débit (ChIP-seq, RNA-seq), nous avons montré que MITF active un ensemble de gènes impliqués dans la réplication et la réparation de l’ADN ainsi que la mitose pour stimuler la prolifération des cellules de mélanome, et réprime des gènes contrôlant leur caractère invasif. Pour étudier le mécanisme d’action de MITF, son interactome a été déterminé par spectrométrie de masse mettant en évidence de nombreux partenaires à activité co-activateur ou co-répresseur (bcaténine, complexes de remodelage de la chromatine BRG1 et NURF) ainsi que des facteurs intervenant dans le cycle de l’ubiquitination et de déubuquitination (HERC2 et USP11). Une caractérisation fonctionnelle de HERC2 et USP11 suggère qu’ils agissent comme des cofacteurs transcriptionnels de MITF essentiels pour la prolifération des cellules de mélanome. / MITF (MIcrophthalmia-associated Transcription Factor) controls multiple aspects of the physiopathology of the melanocyte lineage. Using high throughput genomics techniques (ChIP-seq, RNA-seq), we show that MITF activates a set of genes involved in DNA replication and repair as well as mitosis to promote melanoma cell proliferation, while repressing genes involved in promoting their invasion. To better understand how MITF acts both as a transcriptional activator and repressor, we characterized the MITF interactome by tandem immuno-affinity purification and mass-spectrometry. A complex set of partners with coactivatoror co-repressor properties were identified (b-catenin, the BRG1 and NURF chromatin remodeling complexes) as well as novel factors with ubiquitin E3 ligase (HERC2) and ubiquitin-specific protease (USP11) activities. Functional characterization of HERC2 and USP11 suggests that they act as transcriptional cofactors for MITF essential for melanoma cell proliferation.

A herbal formula (SL) comprising edible Sophorae Flos and Lonicerae Japonicae Flos was used to treat melanoma in ancient China. In current Chinese medicine practice, the two ingredient herbs of SL are commonly prescribed by Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) doctors for treating melanoma. However, there is no modern clinical or experimental evidence about the anti-melanoma actions of this formula. Signal transducer and activator of the transcription (STAT3), which is constitutively activated in melanoma, has been proposed as one of the anti-melanoma targets. Some natural compounds in SL have been shown to assault cancers including melanoma via inhibiting STAT3 signaling. In this study, we investigated the anti-melanoma effects and explored STAT3 signaling-related mechanism of action of SL. We also identified bioactive components responsible for SL's anti-melanoma effects. Our in vitro and in vivo studies showed that SLE, an ethanolic extract of SL, induced apoptosis, inhibited proliferation, migration and invasion in melanoma cells, inhibited melanoma growth, angiogenesis and prolonged host survival in melanoma-bearing mice. SLE significantly suppressed the activation of STAT3 and its upstream kinase Src in both mouse melanoma tissues and cultured melanoma cells. In melanoma cells, we also found that SLE restrained STAT3 nuclear localization and inhibited the expression of STAT3-regulated genes related to melanoma growth, metastasis and angiogenesis. Overactivation of STAT3 in A375 human melanoma cells diminished the anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic and anti-invasive effects of SLE. RNA-seq and small RNA sequencing analyses showed that SLE altered both the gene expression profile and miRNA signature in B16F10 melanoma tissues. Based on the RNA-seq data, we further validated that SLE inhibited the IL-17-IL-6-STAT3 axis in melanoma. Verification assays for the candidate miRNAs suggested that the significantly upregulated miR-205-5p is a possible target of SLE. Enforced miR-205 expression has been shown to suppress EMT in melanoma cells. In this study, we demonstrated that SLE inhibited melanoma cell EMT, and miR-205-5p knockdown diminished this effect of SLE. In addition, we computationally demonstrated that luteolin, a naturally occurring edible flavone abundant in Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, could directly bind to Src kinase domain. Experimentally, we verified that luteolin inhibited the Src/STAT3 signaling in both melanoma cells and tissues. In addition to inhibit STAT3 activation, luteolin promoted ubiquitin-proteasome pathway-mediated degradation of STAT3. Luteolin also exerted evident in vitro and in vivo anti-melanoma effects, and overactivation of STAT3 diminished its anti-melanoma effects. In conclusion, we demonstrated that SLE exerted in vivo and in vitro anti-melanoma effects, and inhibition of Src/STAT3 signaling and elevation of miR-205-5p expression contributed to these effects. Luteolin was identified to be one of the active components responsible for the inhibitory effects of SLE on STAT3 signaling and the anti-melanoma effects of SLE. This study provides a pharmacological and chemical basis for the traditional use of the formula SL in treating melanoma, and suggests that SLE and SLE-derived compounds have the potential to be developed as modern alternative and/or complimentary agents for melanoma management.

Les imidazoquinoxalines (imiqualines), molécules bioactives originales analogues chimiques de l’imiquimod et présentant un important potentiel anticancéreux, ont été explorées afin d’élucider leurs mécanismes d'action. Les molécules EAPB0203 et EAPB0503, identifiées lors d’études antérieures comme étant les « têtes de séries », ont montré un effet cytotoxique puissant in vitro sur des lignées cellulaires cancéreuses humaines de mélanome et de lymphomes T. Nous avons étudié l’effet cytotoxique de 13 imiqualines nouvellement synthétisées sur une lignée cellulaire de mélanome humain (A375). Tous les composés ont montré un effet cytotoxique important. L’effet cytotoxique a été démontré sur d’autres lignées cellulaires cancéreuses humaines (côlon, sein et lymphome T de l’adulte).Un blocage du cycle cellulaire en phase G2/M a été mis en évidence par cytométrie en flux sur des cellules A375 traitées par EAPB0203 et EAPB0503. Cet arrêt du cycle cellulaire semble être en relation avec un effet inhibiteur de la polymérisation de la tubuline. En effet, nos résultats ont montré que l’EAPB0503 et 3 autres imiqualines inhibent la polymérisation de la tubuline. L’étude de modélisation moléculaire de la liaison à de la tubuline a montré que ces composés se fixent sur le site de la colchicine.Une analyse transcriptomique sur EAPB0503 a été effectuée pour élucider le mécanisme d'action des imiqualines. Cette étude a été faite sur la lignée A375 en comparaison avec 13 anticancéreux de référence. L’étude transcriptomique a montré que EAPB0503 a une composante antitubuline tout en révélant un mécanisme d’action original. Deux hypothèses mécanistiques pour EAPB0503 ont ainsi été identifiées : 1/ altération de la voie de signalisation liée aux intégrines, 2/ altération de la voie de signalisation du récepteur TNFR et de FasL.Des analyses fonctionnelles in vitro nous ont permis d’explorer ces hypothèses. Ainsi, une altération uniquement des voies de signalisation PI3K/AKT et RAS/MAPK, toutes deux liées aux intégrines, a été observée. La première hypothèse semble donc validée. De plus, ce résultat a été confirmé par l’étude de l’expression et de la phosphorylation de ERK.Finalement, nous avons développé une formulation injectable par voie intraveineuse de EAPB0503 à base de nanocapsules. Cette formulation a d’abord été testée in vitro et in vivo sur un modèle de lymphome. Ces études ont pu mettre en évidence l’absence de toxicité des nanoparticules vides et le maintien de l’activité cytotoxique de EAPB0503 encapsulé in vitro, avec un effet immunomodulateur in vivo qui demande à être exploré. / The imidazoquinoxalines (imiqualines), original bioactive molecules and chemical analogues of imiquimod and with significant anti-cancer potential, were explored in order to elucidate their mechanisms of action. The molecules EAPB0203 and EAPB0503 identified in previous studies as leader, showed potent in vitro cytotoxic effect on human cancer cell lines of melanoma and T lymphoma. We studied the cytotoxic effect 13 newly synthesized imiqualines on a cell line of human melanoma (A375). All compounds showed a significant cytotoxic effect. The cytotoxic effect was shown on other human cancer cell lines (colon, breast and adult T lymphoma).A cell cycle block in G2 / M phase was demonstrated by flow cytometry on A375 cells treated with EAPB0203 and EAPB0503. This cell cycle arrest seems to be related with an inhibitory effect on the polymerization of tubulin. Indeed, our results showed that EAPB0503 and three other imiqualines inhibit tubulin polymerization. The molecular modeling study of binding to tubulin showed that these compounds bind at the colchicine site.A transcriptomic analysis on EAPB0503 was performed to elucidate the mechanism of action of imiqualines. This study was made on the A375 line compared with 13 approuved anticancer molecules. This transcriptomic study showed that EAPB0503 has an antitubulin effect while revealing a novel mechanism of action. Two mechanistic hypotheses for EAPB0503 were identified: 1/ alteration of the signaling pathway linked to integrin, 2/ alteration of the signaling pathway TNFR receptor and FasL.In vitro functional analyses have allowed us to explore these hypotheses. Thus, alteration only PI3K / AKT and RAS / MAPK signaling pathways, both related to integrins, was observed. The first hypothesis seems confirmed. Moreover, this result was confirmed by the study of the expression and phosphorylation of ERK.Finally, we developed an intravenously injectable formulation of EAPB0503 based on nanocapsules. This formulation was first tested in vitro and in vivo on lymphoma model. These studies could highlight the lack of toxicity of empty nanoparticles and retention of the cytotoxic activity of encapsulated EAPB0503 in vitro, with an in vivo immunomodulatory effect which needs to be explored.

Hodková, Gabriela - Metabolic Effects Of Hyperthermic Isolated Limb Perfusion (HILP) in Malignant Melanoma Patients First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Praha 2, Kateřinská 32 Head of the work: Doc. MUDr. Michal Semrád, CSc. Supervisor - consultant: MUDr. Miroslav Špaček, Ph. D. The aim of the study is to assess the metabolic consequences of mechanical isolation and hyperthermic cytostatic perfusion in a limb affected by malignant process. The theoretical part refers to a topic of malignant melanoma, its clinical evaluation and treatment. Methods based on conservative and surgical treatment are described. The isolated hyperthermic cytostatic limb perfusion is a consecutive local treatment indicated in cases of recurrent malignant lesions following surgical resection, when next surgery is impossible. In the practical part, the laboratory samples and clinical data were recorded in patients who had undergone hyperthermic cytostatic limb perfusion in the 2nd Surgical Department of The General Teaching Hospital and First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University Prague. The affected limb was flushed with a warm oxygenated blood containing cytostatic drugs using an extracorporeal circuit apparatus. Selected arterial blood gas, metabolic and hematologic parameters were studied intra and...

Le mélanome malin (MM) métastatique, un des cancers les plus intrinsèquement résistants aux agents anti-cancéreux et présentant une forte capacité à développer des résistances acquises, constitue un défi thérapeutique. La meilleure compréhension des mécanismes impliqués dans cette chimiorésistance permettrait d'identifier des cibles thérapeutiques ou de guider le choix du traitement pour une meilleure efficacité. Les travaux réalisés durant cette thèse se sont focalisés sur l'identification de nouveaux déterminants moléculaires de la résistance acquise du MM vis-à-vis (i) des vinca-alcaloïdes (VAs, chimiothérapie classique), (ii) des inhibiteurs de MAP kinases (iMAPK, thérapie ciblée). Pour la première étude, un modèle de lignées cellulaires de MM résistantes aux VAs (CAL1R-VAs) a été établi (exposition continue, 12 mois, de la lignée parentale CAL1-wt à la VCR, la VDS ou la VRB : CAL1R-VCR, CAL1R-VDS et CAL1R-VRB respectivement). La comparaison des profils d'expression a permis de distinguer deux groupes de lignées cellulaires (CAL1R-VCR et CAL1R-VDS ; CAL1R-VRB et CAL1-wt), suggérant une résistance différentielle du MM aux VAs : d'une part à la VCR et à la VDS, d'autre part à la VRB. L'analyse des données transcriptomiques par une démarche associant successivement trois méthodes - RMA (Robust Multi-array Average), RDAM (Rank Difference Analysis of Microarrays) et MGSA (model-based gene set analysis) – a permis d'identifier des fonctions cellulaires altérées lors de la sélection des lignées CAL1R-VAs, et donc potentiellement à l'origine de la résistance de ces lignées. Des analyses fonctionnelles in vitro ont permis de confirmer l'implication des lysosomes et de la réponse au stress du réticulum endoplasmique (RE) dans la résistance différentielle des cellules CAL1 aux VAs. Ainsi, une sous-expression des cathepsines B et L (bioinformatique) et une réduction du volume du compartiment acide (in vitro) ont été observées spécifiquement dans le premier groupe de lignées (CAL1R-VCR et CAL1R-VDS), suggérant une sensibilité réduite de ces lignées à la voie lysosomale de l'apoptose. Par ailleurs, l'inhibition de la voie de réponse au stress du RE par l'acide tauroursodésoxycholique (TUDCA) a induit une sensibilisation différentielle de l'ensemble des lignées CAL1 aux VAs, suggérant l'implication de cette voie dans la résistance différentielle primaire et acquise aux VAs. De plus, l'inhibition de la réponse au stress du RE a induit une sensibilisation d'une autre lignée cellulaire de MM, MDA-MB-435, à la VCR et à la VDS mais pas à la VRB. Ainsi, la voie de réponse au stress du RE semble impliquée dans la résistance différentielle du MM aux VAs. Ce mécanisme pourrait mettre en jeu l'autophagie, dont le flux était significativement augmenté dans le premier groupe de lignées. La même démarche d'analyse transcriptomique a été appliquée pour l'étude des mécanismes moléculaires de résistance acquise du MM aux iMAPK. Des lignées cellulaires de MM résistantes aux trois iMAPK majeurs ont été établies par exposition continue de la lignée parentale A375-wt, portant la mutation activatrice BRAF V600E, au vémurafenib (VMF, inhibiteur de BRAF), dabrafenib (DBF, inhibiteur de BRAF), et trametinib (TMT, inhibiteur de MEK): A375R-VMF, A375R-DBF et A375R-TMT respectivement. La comparaison des profils transcriptomiques n'a pas permis de regrouper les lignées résistantes entre elles, suggérant que les mécanismes de résistance au VMF, au DBF ou au TMT sont différents. Ces mécanismes ne seraient donc communs ni à la voie ciblée (MAPK), ni à la cible moléculaire (BRAF ou MEK). L'identification des fonctions cellulaires altérées procurera un rationnel pour l'étude mécanistique de nouveaux déterminants de la résistance du MM aux iMAPK. / Malignant melanoma (MM), one of the most intrinsically resistant cancers to anticancer agents and presenting a strong ability to develop acquired resistance, remains a therapeutic challenge. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in MM chemoresistance should provide therapeutic targets or guide therapeutic choice for improved efficiency. This thesis has focused on the identification of new molecular determinants of MM acquired resistance to (i) vinca alkaloids (VAs, conventional chemotherapy), and to (ii) MAP kinases inhibitors (MAPKi, targeted therapy). In the first study, MM cell lines resistant to VAs (CAL1R-VAs) were established (continuous exposure, 12 months, of CAL.1-wt parental line to the VCR, VDS or VRB: CAL1R-VCR, CAL1R- VDS and CAL1R-VRB respectively). Comparison of expression patterns led to distinguish two groups of cell lines (CAL1R-VCR and CAL1R-VDS; CAL1R-VRB and CAL.1-wt), suggesting a differential resistance of MM to VAs: one the one hand to VCR and VDS, on the other hand to VRB only. The analysis of transcriptome data by a process involving successively three methods - RMA (Robust Multi-array Average), RDAM (Rank Difference Analysis of Microarrays) and MGSA (model-based gene set analysis) – allowed the identification of functions altered during the resistant cell line selection, and therefore potentially involved in resistance mechanisms of these cell lines. In vitro functional analyzes confirmed the involvement of the lysosomes and of the response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress (unfolded protein response, UPR) in the differential resistance of CAL1 cells to VAs. Thus, an under-expression of cathepsins B and L (bioinformatics), and a reduction of the acidic compartment volume (in vitro) were specifically observed in the first cell group (CAL1R-VCR and CAL1R-VDS), suggesting a reduced sensitivity of these lines to the lysosomal pathway of apoptosis. Furthermore, UPR inhibition using tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) induced a differential sensitization of all the CAL1 lines to VAs, suggesting the involvement of this pathway in the primary and acquired differential resistance to VAs. Moreover, TUDCA-inhibition of UPR induced sensitization another MM cell line, MDA-MB-435, to VCR and VDS but not to VRB. Thus, a UPR up-regulation could to be a significant mechanism of differential resistance of MM to VAs. This mechanism could involve autophagy, whose flow was significantly increased in the first group of lines. The same transcriptome analysis strategy was applied to study (ii) the molecular mechanisms of MM acquired resistance to MAPKi. MM cell lines resistant to the three major MAPKi were established by continuous exposure of the parental A375-wt line, carrying the activating mutation BRAF V600E, to vemurafenib (VMF, BRAF inhibitor), dabrafenib (DBF, BRAF inhibitor), or trametinib (TMT, MEK inhibitor): A375R-VMF, A375R-DBF and A375R-TMT, respectively. Comparison of transcriptomic profiles showed separate expression profiles, suggesting that the molecular mechanisms responsible for resistance to VMF, DBF or TMT were different. These mechanisms cannot therefore be common to the targeted pathway (MAPK) or to the molecular target (BRAF or MEK). The identification of the altered cellular functions will provide a rationale for mechanistic studies of new determinants of MM resistance to MAPKi.

Endothelin receptor b (Ednrb) and its ligand Endothelin 3 (Edn3) have been implicated in melanoma. Several studies have shown an upregulation of EDNRB and EDN3 at both the protein and mRNA levels, as melanoma becomes more aggressive. This study investigated the putative role played by Edn3 over-expression in melanoma progression and angiogenesis in vivo. We crossed Tg(Grm1)Epv transgenic mice that aberrantly express metabotropic glutamate receptor1 under the Dopachrome tautomerase promoter, leading to spontaneous melanocytic lesions in the ears and tails that do not metastasize, with transgenics that overexpress Edn3 under the Keratin 5 promoter (K5-Edn3) or overexpress Ednrb in melanocytes (Tg(Ednrb)1Lk). In both the Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 and Tg(Grm1)Epv/Tg(Ednrb)1Lk mice, tumors appeared earlier and grew significantly larger and faster when compared to Tg(Grm1)Epv mice. Approximately eighty-one percent of Tg(Grm1)Epv/ K5-Edn3 mice and 76% of Tg(Grm1)Epv/Tg(Ednrb)1Lk mice had pigmented lesions in distant organs such as the lung and brain. Real-Time PCR analysis showed higher expression levels of genes involved in cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions and angiogenesis in lesions of Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 when compared to controls. Considering the rapid tumor growth rate of in the Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 mice, differences in the angiogenic response compared to control mice were investigated. Immunofluorescence analysis with the endothelial cell marker CD31 showed that there were more endothelial cells per tumor area in the Tg(Grm1)Epv/K5-Edn3 mice than the controls. Proteome analysis showed that the Dct-Grm1/K5-Edn3 mice had significant increases in other angiogenic related genes such as Angiogenin, CXCL 16 and Endoglin, when compared to controls, while real time PCR analysis of tail tumors also showed higher expression levels of angiogenic related genes such as Hif-1α. The results of this study showed that the EDNRB/EDN3 axis is sufficient to alter the kinetics of melanocytic tumors’ progression, lead them to a fully malignant state, and increase the tumor angiogenic response.