Under the auspices of Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights the right to freedom of expression is said to be held by everyone and to include the freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority, subject to the limitation clauses outlined in Article 10(2). Whilst the text of Article 10 therefore makes no explicit reference to specifically artistic expression, the European Court of Human Rights has, in its interpretation of ‘information and ideas’, nevertheless accepted that artistic expression does indeed fall within the ambit of Article 10’s protection of freedom of expression. However, despite the Court recognising artistic expression as a form of expression within the framework of Article 10, conclusions reached in the early case law concerning the issue of controversial artworks would appear to suggest the judicial creation of an implicit hierarchy of expression under which artistic expression is seen to enjoy a relatively low level of protection. Given the non-differentiated articulation of the right to freedom of expression enounced in the text of Article 10, the creation of such a hierarchy of expression is therefore a cause for doctrinal concern. In seeking to assess this misnomer the thesis’ analysis of the treatment of artistic expression under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights may be distilled in to two component parts. Firstly, a theoretical basis will be established from which artistic expression may be located within the context of the discourse pertaining to freedom of expression more generally. Having confirmed that, whilst of a distinctive, sui generis nature, artistic expression may indeed constitute ‘expression’ for the purposes of freedom of expression doctrine the second part of the thesis will examine the particular question of artistic expression’s treatment under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights.

FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Cearà / Este trabalho tem como objetivo principal analisar as manifestaÃÃes evidenciais e modais epistÃmicas e sua relaÃÃo com o grau de comprometimento do autor de artigos cientÃficos com o conteÃdo asseverado. Para a descriÃÃo e anÃlise dos dados, adotamos a perspectiva funcionalista da linguagem. Nesta, a lÃngua nÃo à entendida como um objeto autÃnomo, mas como um sistema que sofre pressÃes da situaÃÃo comunicativa. Dessa forma, a investigaÃÃo realizada parte das expressÃes em uso, buscando entender o funcionamento da lÃngua, pois à no uso que as expressÃes adquirem sentido. O corpus desta pesquisa à constituÃdo por nove artigos cientÃficos retirados de anais de encontros ocorridos na Ãrea de LinguÃstica, no perÃodo de 2008 e 2009. Optamos pela anÃlise da evidencialidade e da modalidade epistÃmica como domÃnios funcionais marcadores do nÃvel comprometimento do autor em artigos cientÃficos por pressupormos que, em tal gÃnero, poderemos encontrar vÃrias marcas dessas categorias utilizadas como estratÃgias de distanciamento, jà que o autor desse tipo de texto busca maior objetividade, conforme prescriÃÃo dos manuais de metodologia cientÃfica, distanciando-se do conteÃdo para garantir cientificidade ao seu trabalho. Coletamos 410 ocorrÃncias que foram analisadas quanto aos aspectos sintÃticos (meios de expressÃo e posiÃÃo da marca evidencial no enunciado), semÃnticos (tipo de domÃnio e tipo de fonte da manifestaÃÃo evidencial) e pragmÃticos (grau de envolvimento do autor de artigos cientÃficos com o conteÃdo enunciado e presenÃa de marcas explÃcitas de adesÃo). Os resultados obtidos comprovaram que a evidencialidade e a modalidade epistÃmica sÃo utilizadas em textos cientÃficos para promover um efeito de mÃdio comprometimento. Essa constataÃÃo revela que, o discurso cientÃfico à marcado pelo uso de expressÃes que âmascaramâ a subjetividade do autor e evidenciam um comprometimento parcial dele com a verdade enunciada. Quanto aos meios de expressÃo utilizados, verificamos a preferÃncia dos autores de artigos cientÃficos pelo uso de manifestaÃÃes evidenciais e modais epistÃmicas expressas atravÃs de itens verbais. No gÃnero analisado, constatamos maior recorrÃncia de evidencialidade reportada de fonte definida, com marca intercalada entre a fonte da informaÃÃo e o conteÃdo comunicado. / This study aims at analyzing evidentiality and epistemic modality and their relationship with the level of engagement of a scientific article writer and the stated content. To the description and analysis of the data it is used the functional perspective on language, in which the language is not understood as an independent object, but as a system under the pressure of communicative situations. Thus, this investigation focuses on the expressions in use, trying to understand the functioning of the language, since it is through the use that the expressions acquire meaning. In order to make this research possible the corpus used is constituted by 9 scientific articles taken from Linguistics annals published within the years of 2008 and 2009. We have chosen the analysis of evidentiality and epistemic modality as functional domains which mark the level of engagement of a scientific article writer since we have as a presupposition that in such case, we may find several registers of these categories used as detachment strategies, considering that the author of this type of writing leads towards objectiveness as stipulated by manuals of scientific methodology, getting detached from the content to preserve the work scientific style. 410 occurrences have been collected and analyzed concerning synthetic (means of expressions and position of evidential marks in the statement), semantic (type of domain and source of the evidential manifestation), and pragmatic (level of commitment of a scientific article writer with the stated content, and the presence of explicit marks of adhesion) aspects. The results proved that evidentiality and epistemic modality are used in scientific texts to promote an effect of medium engagement, revealing that the scientific discourse is marked by the use of expressions that mask the authorâs subjectivity and highlight their partial engagement with the established truth. Concerning the means of expressions used, we observed that scientific article writers prefer the use of evidential and epistemic modal manifestations expressed through verbal items. Regarding the analyzed genre, it has been found more occurrences related to the reported evidentiality from a definite source, with interspersed marks between the source of information and the established content.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma análise semântica, no paradigma da Semântica Formal, da (i) restrição de domínio no DP e da (ii) expressão kar, que veicula a ideia de totalidade, no dialeto paranaense da língua Kaingang, do tronco Macro-Jê, família Jê, falada nas regiões sul e sudeste do Brasil. Num primeiro momento, o artigo definido parece ter, no Kaingang Paranaense, uma distribuição não trivial: aplica-se primeiro a um determinante quantificacional e restringe, via essa combinação, o domínio do quantificador, tal como no Basco, Grego e Státimcets (Giannakidou 2003, Etxeberria 2005 e Etxeberria & Giannakidou 2009), línguas muito parecidas com o Kaingang no domínio nominal. Alguns dados, contudo, apontaram a análise em outra direção. Entendemos que certos padrões de comportamento semântico e sintático apresentado por kar nas sentenças, tal como sua neutralidade quanto à propriedade de distributividade e a possibilidade da conjunção de duas sequências de [NP+kar] sob um mesmo artigo definido (ao contrário do Basco, no qual a mesma estrutura é agramatical, sugerindo que os quantificadores universais em Basco criam um QP), são algumas das evidências que, no conjunto, dão suporte para a hipótese, defendida nesta dissertação, de que kar, no Kaingang Paranaense, parece ser um modificador - à la Lasersohn (1999) -, não tendo, por isso, uma força quantificacional própria. A função semântica de kar seria de controlar o quanto de desvio da verdade é pragmaticamente permissível. Como consequência desta análise, no Kaingang Paranaense o artigo definido não operaria sobre um determinante quantificacional, mas sim sobre um NP. O que aponta no sentido de que os artigos definidos ag/fag (os/as) no Kaingang Paranaense, em contextos em que eles co-ocorrem com kar, não perderiam a sua função max, i.e., de formadores de indivíduo a partir de um conjunto, para funcionar meramente como um operador preservador de tipo e restritor de domínio adjungido ao determinante quantificacional, como proposto por Giannakidou 2003, Etxeberria (2005) e Etxeberria & Giannakidou (2009) para o Basco e o Grego. Ag/fag continuariam sendo artigos definidos clássicos ocupando o núcleo de uma projeção DP e kar um modificador. Também discutimos brevemente algumas das vantagens e problemas de se tentar estender esta análise para o Basco, Grego e Státimcets. E, por último, investigamos o comportamento de kar na sentença, as possíveis leituras quando da sua interação com indefinidos, numerais, tipos de predicados e o operador distributivo introduzido via reduplicação verbal. Com base nos dados, nossa proposta é de que - em função de a leitura distributiva, na maioria dos exemplos, ser permitida pelos informantes somente quando houve reduplicação verbal - kar é neutro quanto à propriedade da distributividade e que o operador distributivo introduzido por reduplicação verbal tem escopo sobre todo o VP. / This dissertation presents, in the paradigm of formal semantics, a semantic analysis of both (i) the phenomenon of domain restriction in the DP and (ii) the expression kar, which conveys the idea of totality, in a dialect of the Kaingang language, a Brazilian language from the Macro-Jê Stock, Jê family, spoken in southern and southeastern Brazil. Although, at first, the definite article in Kaingang seems to have a non-trivial distribution: it applies first to a quantificational expression, and via such combination restricts the domain of quantifier, such as in Basque, Greek and Státimcets (Giannakidou 2003, Etxeberria 2005 and Etxeberria & Giannakidou 2009), some data pointed the analysis in another direction. Patterns of semantic and syntactic bevavior presented by kar in some sentences, such as its neutralite regarding the property of distributivity and the possibility of conjoining two [NP + kar] sequences under the same definite article (unlike Basque, which does not allow such structure, suggesting that in Basque the universal quantifier creats a QP), seem to be as a whole evidences for the hypothesis, advocated in this thesis, that the expression kar may be a modifier - à la Lasersohn (1999) - and as such would not have a quantificational force of its own. The semantic function of kar would be to control how much deviation from the truth conditions of the sentences is pragmatically allowed. As a result of this analysis, the definite articles ag/fag in Kaingang do not operate on a quantificational expression, as in Basque and Greek, but on the NP. Such fact suggests that the definite articles in Kaingang, in contexts they co-occur with kar, do not lose their max function in order to work merely as a type preserver and a domain restrictor combined with a quantificational expression, as proposed by Giannakidou 2003, Etxeberria (2005) e Etxeberria & Giannakidou (2009) for Basque and Greek. Ag/fag would still be a classical definite article occupying the head of a DP projection and kar a modifier, instead of a universal quantifier. We also discuss briefly some of the advantages and problems of trying to extend this analysis to the Basque, Greek and Státimcets languages. And lastly, we investigated the behavior of kar in the sentence, its interaction with indefinites, numerals, types of predicates and the distributive operator introduced via verbal reduplication. Based on such data, once distributive readings were permitted by the informants only via verbal reduplication, our proposal is that kar is neutral regarding the property of distributivity and that the distributive operator introduced via verbal reduplication has scope over the VP.

That subjective and political values form the sources and function of international law, is an often encountered claim and the literature produced by schools of international legal theory in response to this inquiry diverge. On the one hand, according to classical and positivist approaches to international law, a formalistic and ideal form of the law that is also detached from the world of politics is possible. On the other hand, the perception that attitudinal and institutional constraints might determine the content of the law is common in international legal scholarship ranging from international relations approaches and the New Stream to policy oriented perspectives. Understanding the content of the law, however, would also necessitate questioning how adjudicators interpret legal texts and decide in causal-positive terms. In other words, in theorizing international law, one should explore the interpretation and application of international law in order to test whether adjudicators are influenced by background, training, personality, value preferences as well as normative and structural institutional constraints and, thus, if international law operates based on law and/or politics. Based on the theories and methods of judicial behaviour that originate from the American legal realism movement of the early 20th century, this work undertakes a non-empirical socio-legal research that studies the behaviour of ITA tribunals. It considers that law is indeterminate and that the process of judicial-decision making is a mixture of law, politics and policy. This work constructs a framework based on the political regimes approach by Clayton and May (1999), supplemented by the political jurisprudence literature of Shapiro (1964) and the historical interpretive approach of Smith (1988). It argues that ITA Tribunals “may believe that individual legal institutions are themselves embedded within, and draw meaning from, the larger political regime”. In doing so, the ITA Tribunal may assume a principal political role in order to accommodate the interests of various stakeholders involved in the broader political regime of international investment, albeit limited to constitutive and non-constitutive institutions. This work investigates the role of institutions embedded in the broader political regime in judicial decision-making in ITA. How do institutions, with their political characteristics, affect the process of decision-making in ITA or do they affect at all? To that extent, this work is concerned with whether the ITA Tribunal oscillates between the normative character of the law and the political contingency of the law. It examines the extent to which the ITA Tribunal accommodates politics in its decisions and, in this vein, whether there is a correlation between politics and decision-making in ITA. As its case study, this work studies arbitral decision-making under NAFTA Chapter 11. It first explores the broader political regime in which NAFTA tribunals operate, revisiting the original bargain that underlies the NAFTA deal. It then identifies specific constitutive institutions that are influential in NAFTA ITA decision-making. It traces the specific vocabulary or ‘grammar’ (Koskenniemi 1989) that is used by Chapter 11 Tribunals in considering the place of these constitutive institutions in ITA decision-making. Subsequently, this work studies the normative political development of Article 1105 on the minimum standard of treatment within the broader political regime under NAFTA. It investigates shifts in the specific vocabulary vis-à-vis the distortions to the two pillars of the political regime of NAFTA, namely asymmetric obligations and the regulation of environment. This work demonstrates that the development of the minimum standard of treatment under Article 1105 reflects a brief history of intrusion by non-disputing parties from sovereign states and amici. This is enabled through the constitutive institutions and draws meaning from the political regime of international investment under NAFTA. It concludes that the ITA Tribunal is able to develop a vocabulary with which it could internalize the conundrums of the broader political regime in which it operates. This shows that the ITA Tribunal is not only competent in settling disputes but also in judicial politics.

José Saramago, em sua obra, procura construir uma compreensão do mundo (em seus aspectos políticos, sociais e humanos) a partir do envolvimento do Homem com a Palavra. Nas crônicas, produzidas ao longo de oito anos (1968-1975), essa relação é explorada por vários enfoques, uma vez que esse gênero permite uma oscilação do trivial ao filosófico, do riso à melancolia, do irônico ao panfletário, tornando-se uma espécie de \"laboratório de estilos\" para o futuro Nobel. Com isso, as crônicas constituem-se como elemento central na formação do escritor, sendo responsáveis por construir aspectos da persona saramaguiana. No presente trabalho, três eixos principais se estabelecem: a Linguagem, a Paisagem e a Viagem; e é a partir deles que todo o jogo literário saramaguiano se estabeleceria. / José Saramago, in his work, intends to build an understanding of the world (in its political, social and human aspects) from the interaction between Man and Word. His articles, published from 1968 to 1975, explored that relationship through many approaches, reflecting a genre that allows a fluctuation from trivial to philosophical subjects, from laughter to sorrow, from irony to pamphleteering. This genre became a form of styles laboratory for the future Nobel prize winner. Thus, the articles contains in them the main elements of the writers formation, being responsible for building aspects of Saramagos persona. In this work, three main axes are established: the Language, the Landscape/Prospect and the Journey; and is on them that all of Saramago\'s literary puzzle is produced.

Patterns of articles accepted for publication in the Journal of College Counseling from the past 12 years were reviewed in this metastudy. Results were described and statistically analyzed to identify trends over time in characteristics of authors, including sex, institutional classifications, employment setting, and domicile, and characteristics of articles, including article type, research design, sample size, types of participants, and statistical procedures.

Patterns of articles published in The Career Development Quarterly (CDQ) from 1990 to 2011 were reviewed in this metastudy. Author characteristics (e.g., gender, employment setting, nation of domicile) and article characteristics (e.g., topic, type, design, sample, sample size, participant type, statistical procedures and sophistication) were described and analyzed for trends over time. Significant changes were noted in increased proportions of female authors, international contributors, research articles, more sophisticated research designs, and decreased numbers of practitioner-authors. These trends highlight a robust journal that continues to evolve to address changing career development and counseling challenges.

English articles are perhaps the most difficult grammatical items for Japanese students to master. However, because these are among the most frequently occurring grammatical items in English, Japanese students must concern themselves with them.

1. La présente thèse de doctorat démontre la nécessité de la consécration jurisprudentielle ou législative d’un droit subjectif d’accès à l’espace public privatisé. Cette expression désigne l’appropriation privée des infrastructures de communication qui permettent l’échange et la discussion des informations et des idées sans lesquels la démocratie serait impossible. L’étude montre que le droit fondamental à la liberté d’expression, instrument juridique de la circulation des informations et des opinions, constitue le cadre légal d’une théorie générale du droit d’accès à l’espace public privatisé : il contient en germe le principe d’une prérogative individuelle d’utiliser les moyens de communication de masse pour contribuer aux débats d’intérêt public et permet d’en préciser les modalités concrètes. 2. Avant d’exposer le plan et la méthode de la démonstration, j’aimerais évoquer l’intuition qui a été à l’origine de ce travail. Des mouvements de contestation de l’omniprésence de la publicité commerciale dans l’espace public organisent parfois des opérations de barbouillage des affiches publicitaires. En octobre 2003, des militants ont mené une véritable campagne contre les immenses placards présents dans les stations du métro parisien. Le débat que voulaient porter ces activistes possède un caractère sérieux et concerne une dimension importante du vivre ensemble. Pour une partie de l’opinion, dont les militants antipub forment la minorité agissante , la surconsommation, l’envahissement de la publicité commerciale et les thèmes liés (surconsommation, domination de la pensée marchande) constituent des enjeux politiques majeurs. Cependant, le moyen d’expression choisi par les « antipub » se heurtait à des règles de droit. En avril 2004, le tribunal de grande instance de Paris a condamné neuf d’entre eux à payer à la Régie autonome des transports parisiens (RATP) des dommages-intérêt allant de 400 à 2000 € . Mais à défaut d’avoir les moyens financiers pour louer des espaces publicitaires où afficher leurs convictions, de quelle autre possibilité disposaient-ils pour faire émerger leurs opinions dans un espace public (l’objet même de leur message) où, à part des panneaux de circulation routière, on ne trouve guère d’autre forme de communication que la publicité commerciale ? Intuitivement, il me semblait que leur revendication avait, en ce qui concerne le mode d’expression choisi, sa part de justesse. Pour animer et nourrir un débat d’intérêt général avec efficacité, ces militants devaient, me semble-t-il, avoir le droit d’utiliser l’espace public. 3. Pour explorer et vérifier cette intuition, il était nécessaire de procéder à une analyse de la notion d’espace public en démocratie. La pensée de J. HABERMAS offre le cadre le plus fécond et le plus convaincant pour comprendre la relation entre le projet politique moderne et l’existence d’une société civile qui débat des affaires de la cité. Sur les pas de ce grand penseur, le premier chapitre de la thèse s’attache à montrer que l’espace public, enceinte de discussion du politique par la société civile, est le principe premier de la démocratisation du monde. Ce travail de philosophie politique démontre que le projet d’une société démocratique réclame d’être en permanence irrigué par les débats qui se mènent au sein de la sphère publique. 4. Il fallait ensuite, et c’est l’objet du second chapitre, prolonger cet acquis théorique par une enquête visant à identifier les structures qui, concrètement, permettent la discussion des questions politiques. Cette étape révèle que l’espace public comporte deux dimensions : l’espace public géographique (les rues, les places, les parcs publics) d’une part, l’espace public médiatique de l’autre. La caractéristique majeure de ce dernier réside dans l’existence d’un réseau mondial de communication interactif et ouvert à l’expression individuelle : c’est dans ce contexte contemporain qu’il fallait identifier les différents acteurs de la mise en débat des affaires de la cité. L’analyse a conduit au constat de l’appropriation privée de la plus grande partie des structures d’information et de discussion. 5. La première partie de la thèse se conclut ainsi par le constat que l’espace public est privatisé. Elle a puisé dans les ressources de la philosophie et de la sociologie afin d’identifier un chantier du droit, c’est-à-dire un thème où la pratique interpelle vivement l’ordre juridique et commande une analyse à nouveaux frais des réponses apportées par le droit. 6. La logique de la démonstration imposait d’en consacrer la deuxième partie à une étude approfondie du droit de la liberté d’expression. En effet, cette liberté fondamentale forme l’instrument juridique de la circulation des informations et des idées : elle garantit l’existence et le fonctionnement d’une structure de discussion des affaires publiques. 7. La liberté d’expression est un droit que ses utilisations extrêmement variées ont rendu complexe. Dans la mesure où sa proclamation textuelle dans le marbre d’une Constitution ou d’un traité international demeure insuffisante à permettre à elle seule une analyse du droit de parler librement, le recours à une analyse philosophique s’est imposé. Celle-ci révèle que la résolution d’un cas en matière de liberté d’expression se traduit inévitablement par ce qu’on peut appeler une distribution de coûts et d’avantages. Cet arbitrage qui produit des victimes et des vainqueurs exige d’être justifié. Les trois théories classiques que sont la recherche de la vérité, le service de la démocratie et l’autonomie individuelle apparaissent comme les trois registres d’argumentation qui permettent d’analyser et résoudre un problème de liberté d’expression. Le premier chapitre de la seconde partie montre la nécessité de penser ensemble ces trois registres dans le cadre d’une théorie écologique de la liberté d’expression : celle-ci désigne une analyse contextuelle des problèmes (la circulation d’un message doit être étudiée en relation avec l’environnement où il produit ses effets) et un principe de précaution (contre toute menace d’un appauvrissement de l’écosystème de la communication humaine, ce principe réclame un niveau élevé de protection des discours et messages les plus variés). 8. Le second chapitre de la deuxième partie consiste alors en une étude de droit comparé de la liberté d’expression. Les systèmes juridiques du droit de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme et du droit constitutionnel américain ont été retenus parce qu’ils s’offrent mutuellement, dans le cadre d’un dialogue décalé, une figure de l’altérité au sein du monde occidental . Confrontées à des problèmes similaires, les deux hautes juridictions que sont la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme et la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis d’Amérique ne les résolvent pas toujours de manière identique. Le réseau mondial de communication force pourtant leur confrontation. Il était dès lors pertinent de procéder à une analyse plus globale que les oppositions que l’on pointe généralement de façon isolée. 9. Pour mener à bien l’exercice de comparaison, il fallait disposer d’une méthode permettant la confrontation des solutions produites dans deux systèmes juridiques différents. Le travail s’est organisé autour d’une grille d’analyse qui peut être appliquée à tout litige en matière de liberté d’expression indépendamment de son système d’origine. Quatre variables ont été utilisées, qui sont présentes dans tout différend en ce domaine : l’auteur (1) d’un message (2) diffusé par un canal (3) et faisant l’objet d’une réaction (4). Les variations de ces quatre facteurs permettent d’expliquer, dans les deux systèmes juridiques, le niveau de protection de la liberté d’expression. Ils offraient ainsi un support efficace à la comparaison. L’analyse de droit comparé révèle qu’une ambition transversale réunit, en dépit de certaines divergences, les droits américain et européen de la liberté d’expression : une société démocratique requiert un débat public vigoureux, ce qui explique qu’un message qualifié de contribution à une controverse d’intérêt général mérite le plus haut degré de protection. 10. Il est alors devenu possible, puisque l’on connaissait le contexte de la démocratie contemporaine et le fonctionnement de la liberté d’expression, de consacrer la troisième partie de la thèse à l’étude du droit d’accès à l’espace public privatisé. 11. Le premier chapitre décrit une théorie générale du droit d’accès en rapportant les enseignements puisés dans l’étude du droit de la liberté d’expression au contexte contemporain d’une sphère publique dont les structures sont aux mains d’acteurs privés. L’analyse démontre qu’il est nécessaire que toute personne qui entend contribuer à un débat d’intérêt général dispose d’un droit individuel d’accès à l’espace public privatisé, lorsqu’il n’existe pas d’autre canal de communication également efficace. Elle montre également que ce droit d’accès à la propriété d’autrui est à la source d’un important surcroît de démocratie sans représenter un coût excessif pour les propriétaires des espaces publics privatisés. L’étude montre enfin que le droit constitutionnel américain pourrait accueillir une intervention législative consacrant une prérogative individuelle de participation aux débats publics, tandis que le droit européen de la liberté d’expression n’est pas loin d’avoir effectivement consacré le droit d’accès à l’espace public privatisé, présent en creux et disponible pour une mobilisation efficace à l’occasion d’un procès. 12. Dans le second chapitre de la troisième partie, mouvement final de la thèse, il fallait, pour mener à son terme une analyse qui s’est donné une visée pragmatique, déduire de la théorie générale les formes concrètes d’un droit d’accès aux différents espaces publics privatisés. Puisqu’Internet offre un support technologique idéal à la mise en pratique du droit d’accès à l’espace public privatisé, le travail devait s’inscrire dans la perspective d’une utilisation effective du potentiel de démocratisation du réseau mondial de communication. Il prend la forme de deux propositions destinées à nourrir la pratique du droit. Cherchant à sécuriser juridiquement les meilleures pratiques des acteurs du web, la première proposition décrit les modalités d’exercice du droit d’accès aux espaces publics privatisés. La seconde proposition prend acte de ce que le droit d’accès contraint des acteurs de la société de l’information à héberger des contenus sur lesquels ils n’exercent pas de maîtrise éditoriale : dans la prolongation des mécanismes légaux existants, elle précise les conditions procédurales d’une exonération, au profit des propriétaires des espaces publics privatisés, de la responsabilité liée aux contenus produits par les titulaires du droit d’accès.

This essay analyse the anti-dumping policy of the European Union, with specific focus on the anti-dumping tariff imposed on imports of ertain footwear from the People’s Republic of China from 1997 to 2002. Even though free trade is expected from the members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) there are certain exceptions. One is when there is a suspicion that goods are being dumped in a foreign market, i.e. the exporter sells the product at a lower price in the foreign market than in its home market. Article VI in GATT regulates this together with the Anti-dumping Agreement. In 1997 EU imposed an anti-dumping measure on certain footwear imported from the People’s Republic of China. This measure was in effect until 2002 (the maximum time for an anti-dumping tariff is five years). We expect to see a decrease of footwear exports from the People’s Republic of China to the European Union during this period. By using a log-linear regression analysis we can see that the EU imports of Chinese footwear did indeed decrease from its trend otherwise during 1997 to 2002. Since the industry overall increased its sales during the same period, we draw the conclusion that the tariff was the reason for the decreased imports.