abstract: Theoretical models support conceptualizing parent-child relationships as reciprocal and transactional with each person exerting influence on the other’s behaviors and the overall quality and valence of the relationship across time. The goals of this study were twofold: 1) determine whether there were reciprocal relations in maternal hostility and child negativity across early and middle childhood, and 2) investigate whether individual characteristics (i.e., child temperamental anger and frustration and maternal neuroticism) moderated relations found in goal one. Data were from the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Empirical support was found for conceptualizing mother-child interactions as reciprocal. Maternal hostility was related to a decrease in the probability children would exhibit negative behaviors during mother-child interactions measured approximately two years later. Child negativity was also associated with a significant decrease in the probability mothers would display future hostility. Child temperamental anger and frustration was found to moderate reciprocal relations across all three parent-to-child cross-lagged paths. Children scoring high on a dispositional proclivity to react with anger and frustration were more likely to avoid maternal hostility, via a significant decrease in negativity, across time. Moderation was also supported in two of three child-to-parent lagged paths. Finally, maternal neuroticism moderated the reciprocal effects during early childhood, such that more neurotic mothers were more likely to demonstrate a decrease in the probability of hostility relative to mothers scoring lower on neuroticism. This affect was attenuated in middle childhood, with patterns becoming similar between mothers scoring high and low on neuroticism. Moreover, children of less neurotic mothers were more likely to demonstrate a decrease in the probability of exhibiting negativity from 36 to 54 months compared to children of more neurotic mothers. This effect also attenuated with patterns becoming negative at the grade 1 to grade 3 lag. Overall, the results from this study supported a transactional model of parent-child relationships, were consistent with the motivation literature, did not support a coercive process of interaction when the sample and measurement paradigm were low-risk, and generally suggested parents and children have an equal influence on the relational processes investigated from early to middle childhood. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Family and Human Development 2016

Orientadora: Suely Amaral Mello / Banca: Cláudia Aparecida Valderramas Gomes / Banca: Sônia Regina Teixeira / Banca: Stela Miller / Banca: Cyntia Guizilim Girotto / Resumo: A presente pesquisa foi motivada a partir de observações do cotidiano das crianças na escola de Educação Infantil, na qual observou-se uma pobreza de experiências em seus fazeres e uma visão biologizante dos professores quanto ao desenvolvimento infantil. O estudo tem como embasamento teórico a teoria histórico-cultural e parte do pressuposto de que a situação social de desenvolvimento das crianças é condicionada por suas condições de vida e educação, e quando intencionalmente organizadas, podem promover vivências que conduzam ao máximo desenvolvimento psíquico. Tem como objetivo geral identificar e analisar a situação social de desenvolvimento da criança de dois a três anos por meio das situações vivenciadas na escola da infância e tem como objetivos específicos analisar as condições objetivas e subjetivas em que se efetivam as experiências das crianças de dois a três anos na escola de Educação Infantil, refletir sobre como acontece a intervenção intencional do (a) professor (a) nessas circunstâncias e identificar como tais condições se objetivam em elementos indicadores do desenvolvimento psíquico. A hipótese inicial é de que o desenvolvimento da criança pode ser potencializado quando se identifica a situação social de desenvolvimento, o que implica reconhecer as condições objetivas e subjetivas em que acontecem a atividade e como essa atividade impacta as funções psíquicas em formação. A metodologia consistiu em observação e filmagem da rotina de uma turma de crianças de dois a três anos de um Centro de Educação Infantil. As crianças foram observadas e filmadas enquanto se relacionavam com as demais crianças, com a professora e com os materiais disponíveis no espaço da sala. Os resultados apresentados demonstram que ao observar, atentamente, os fazeres, expressões e modos de agir das crianças, o (a) professor (a) pode identificar a sua... / Abstract: This study was motivated from observations about children in early childhood education‟s daily in which were realized poor activities experiences and a biological view from educators about the child development. This study has a theoretical basic from the cultural historical theory and the presupposed the social conditions of child development are conditioned by his life situations and education. However, when they are purposely organized, they can promote experiences that conduce to the psychological development. The general aim of this research is identifying and analyzing the children between two and three years old‟s social situation of development from experiences in the childhood education. The specific aims are analyzing the objective and subjective conditions that the children between two and three years old experience; reflecting about how these conditions promote the psychological development objectively as well as understanding how the purposely intervention of teachers happens. The first hypothesis is that children development can be enhanced when the social condition of development is identified by recognizing the objective and subjective conditions the activities happens and how these impact the psychological functions in formation. The methods consist in watching and recording the daily of a children group between two and three years old in an early childhood education. While the children related each other, to teacher and to objects available in the room. The results show the children were active when in contact with the objects available in the room, although there was not wide variety of them. In many situations, the not intentional intervention of the teacher hindered the development of the children. The research shows the educators can identify the children‟s social situation of development by watching carefully them in order to plan and organize the favorable conditions ... / Doutor

Introdução: Estudos vêm demonstrando que o ambiente intrauterino influencia no crescimento fetal e extrauterino, repercutindo no perfil de saúde em longo prazo. Objetivo: Comparar a velocidade de crescimento durante os primeiros três meses de vida de crianças geradas em ambientes intrauterinos considerados adversos. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo longitudinal prospectivo controlado desenvolvido com pares de mãe-filho residentes em Porto Alegre/RS. Cinco grupos de exposição foram estudados (diabetes, hipertensão arterial, tabaco e restrição do crescimento intrauterino) e um controle. O crescimento foi avaliado em cinco momentos (pós-parto, sete dias, quinze dias, um mês e três meses) utilizando os índices peso para idade (P/I), comprimento para idade (E/I) e Índice de Massa Corpórea para idade (IMC/I). A análise de regressão Equações de Estimativas Generalizadas foi utilizada para avaliar a relação entre o ambiente intrauterino e o crescimento. A velocidade de crescimento foi avaliada com um e três meses, utilizando a diferença entre as medidas de escore z (delta). Identificou-se a influência de fatores sociodemográficos, maternos e neonatais no peso ao nascer e na velocidade de crescimento. Resultados: Os fatores que influenciaram no peso ao nascer foram: paridade, IMC pré-gestacional, ganho de peso durante a gestação, tipo de parto e sexo. Ao utilizar o escore z de P/I, verificou-se que os grupos tabaco e restrito apresentaram médias significativamente menores do que o controle. De zero a um mês, a velocidade de ganho de peso entre os restritos foi significativamente maior do que os demais. De zero a três meses, só não foi significativamente maior do que o grupo hipertensão arterial. A velocidade de ganho de comprimento de zero a um e de zero a três meses foi significativamente maior no grupo restrito ao comparar com o controle. Ao utilizar o escore z de IMC/I, os grupos tabaco e restrito apresentaram médias significativamente menores do que o grupo controle. A velocidade de ganho de IMC de zero a um mês do grupo restrito só não foi significativamente maior do que o grupo hipertensão arterial. De zero a três meses, foi significativamente maior do que todos os demais. Os fatores que influenciaram na velocidade de crescimento foram: situação conjugal, IMC pré-gestacional, ganho de peso durante a gestação e internação hospitalar da criança. Conclusão: O presente estudo identificou que a velocidade de crescimento nos três primeiros meses de vida é influenciada por ambientes intrauterinos adversos e diferentes fatores gestacionais e neonatais estão envolvidos neste contexto. O grupo restrito foi o que apresentou os escores médios mais baixos e a maior recuperação. O grupo hipertensão arterial, que possuiu escores médios negativos, apresentou velocidade de ganho de peso positiva durante os primeiros três meses, sinalizando recuperação. Já o grupo tabaco, que apresentou escores médios negativos, não possuiu recuperação significativa. Os achados deste estudo poderão auxiliar na elaboração de estratégias de prevenção do crescimento acelerado em crianças expostas a fatores considerados de risco. Intervenções realizadas na infância inicial poderão refletir no perfil de saúde e na carga de doenças durante o curso da vida destas crianças. / Introduction: Studies has demonstrated that the intrauterine environment influences on fetal and extrauterine growth, reflecting the long-term health profile. Objective: To compare the growth velocity during the first three months of life among children born in intrauterine environments considered adverse. Methods: It is a prospective controlled longitudinal study developed with mother-infant pairs living in Porto Alegre/RS. Four exposure groups were studied (diabetes, hypertension, smoking and intrauterine growth restricted) and a control. Growth was evaluated in five moments (postpartum, seven days, fifteen days, one month and three months) using the weight for age (W/A), height for age (H/A) and Body Mass Index for age (BMI/A). Regression analysis with generalized estimating equations were used to evaluate the relationship between the intrauterine environment and growth. The growth velocity was performed with one and three months using the difference between the z-score measures (delta). Were identified the influence of sociodemographic factors on maternal and neonatal birth weight and growth velocity. Results: Factors that influence the birth weight were: parity, pre-pregnancy BMI, weight gain during pregnancy, type of delivery and sex. By using the z score for W/A, it was found that tobacco and intrauterine growth restricted groups had significantly lower average than the control. From zero to one month, the weight gain velocity between intrauterine growth restricted was significantly higher than the others. From zero to three months, weight gain velocity of the intrauterine growth restricted group was significantly higher than the other groups, except hypertension. The length gain velocity from zero to one and three months was significantly higher in the intrauterine growth restricted vs. control. By using the BMI/A z score, tobacco and intrauterine growth restricted groups had significantly lower average than the control group. From zero to one month, only BMI gain speed intrauterine growth restricted group was not significantly higher than the hypertension group. From zero to three months, was significantly higher than the others. The factors that influenced the growth velocity were: marital status, pre-pregnancy BMI, weight gain during pregnancy and the child's hospitalization. Conclusion: The present study identified that the growth velocity in the first three months of life is influenced by adverse intrauterine environment and different gestational and neonatal factors are involved in this context. The intrauterine growth restricted group was the one with the lowest average scores and higher recovery. The hypertension group, which owned negative average scores showed positive weight gain velocity during the first three months, signaling recovery. Otherwise, the tobacco group, which showed negative average scores, did not possess significant recovery. The findings of this study will assist in developing prevention strategies in the accelerated growth in children exposed to the risk factors. Interventions in early childhood may reflect the health profile and burden of disease during the course of life of these children.

nÃo hà / Avaliar o desenvolvimento infantil de crianÃas, por meio de escalas, constitui importante mÃtodo para detectar alteraÃÃes e indicar intervenÃÃes. Analisar a validaÃÃo e aplicaÃÃo do Harris Infant Neuromotor Test (HINT) na lÃngua portuguesa em crianÃas de risco para atraso no desenvolvimento neuromotor na idade de trÃs a doze meses, investigar o desenvolvimento neuromotor da crianÃa, entre trÃs e doze meses de idade aplicando o Harris Infant Neuromotor Test (HINT) na lÃngua portuguesa e analisar a validade de construto do HINT por meio da associaÃÃo do escore final com as variÃveis neonatais da crianÃa e as caracterÃsticas sociodemogrÃficas dos principais responsÃveis pela crianÃa. Estudo metodolÃgico, quantitativo, realizado com 78 crianÃas egressas da UTIN de uma instituiÃÃo pÃblica e 76 pais/responsÃveis, no perÃodo de fev/2009 a fev/2010, em Fortaleza-CE/BR. Aprovado pelo Comità de Ãtica em Pesquisa sob o protocolo n 097/09. A coleta de dados constou de trÃs avaliaÃÃes para cada crianÃa, por trÃs examinadores e transcorreu de julho/2009 a agosto/2010. Na primeira avaliaÃÃo, aplicamos o HINT que se compÃe de quatro partes e um formulÃrio para identificar dados sÃcio-demogrÃficos dos responsÃveis. Neste momento, cada crianÃa foi avaliada e filmada, o que consideramos como segunda avaliaÃÃo. Aproximadamente sessenta dias depois, realizamos a terceira avaliaÃÃo. Os dados foram organizados no programa Excel 2007 e no PAWS versÃo 18, analisamos as propriedades psicomÃtricas e correlaÃÃes das variÃveis. Os resultados mostraram que 48 (61,5%) crianÃas sÃo do sexo masculino, 30 (38,5%), feminino, apenas quatro (5,2%) gemelares, predominando 58 (74,3%) partos abdominais. A idade gestacional variou de 32 a 41 semanas, denominando-se 55 (70,6%) prÃ-termos e o peso ao nascer, de 870 a 4.085g. Conforme a classificaÃÃo do HINT, a mÃdia dos escores finais atingidos pelas crianÃas prÃ-termos variou de 14,6 a 25,2 e a termo 11,2 a 24,7. Na primeira avaliaÃÃo quatro crianÃas prÃ-termos foram classificadas com desenvolvimento anormal e trÃs suspeito. A confiabilidade interclasse mostrou excelente concordÃncia, na primeira e terceira avaliaÃÃo, tendo o ICC variado de 0,992 a 0,996. A confiabilidade interclasse entre os 21 itens do HINT apresentou pÃssima concordÃncia apenas no item 5 â RTCA (Alpha de Cronbach = 0,137). A maioria dos itens apresentou Alpha de Cronbach acima de 0,900. A confiabilidade intraclasse apresentou excelente concordÃncia, alpha de Cronbach entre 0,978 e 0,992. Quanto ao desenvolvimento neuromotor, os escores nÃo apresentaram significÃncia estatÃstica quando comparados os grupos de crianÃas prÃ-termos e a termo (p>0,05). Apresentou correlaÃÃo na primeira avaliaÃÃo com a variÃvel Apgar 5â (p= 0,002). Na terceira, houve significÃncia estatÃstica com o nÃmero de pessoas no domicÃlio (p=0,022); Apgar 5â(p=0,026), IG/capurro (p=0,020). Quando comparadas Ãs mÃdias dos escores finais, identificamos valores estatisticamente significante para Apgar 5â ( p=0,019/examinador 1), (p=0,008/ examinador 2), (p=0,014/examinador 3); com o nÃmero de pessoas no domicÃlio (p= 0,008/examinador 1), (p=0,009/examinador 2), (p=0,015/examinador 3). ConcluÃmos que o HINT à um instrumento confiÃvel e vÃlido para avaliaÃÃo do desenvolvimento neuromotor da crianÃa de risco na idade de trÃs a doze meses.

Em todo o ser humano existe uma condição inata a desenvolver-se; no entanto, as condições externas podem dificultar que esse processo ocorra bem. Assim, para que um desenvolvimento emocional saudável aconteça, é necessário que exista um meio suficientemente bom, capaz de oferecer holding, para permitir a expressão espontânea e criativa da criança no mundo. Um dos acontecimentos que mobiliza intensamente as pessoas e que é passível de comprometer o seu bem-estar, é a morte de um ente querido. Para a criança que está em desenvolvimento, esse evento é ainda mais significativo, pois as angústias e tristezas surgidas no processo de luto podem refletir no desenvolvimento emocional, em especial quando a sua família sofreu o processo de perda de um filho. O luto dos pais pode influenciar no desenvolvimento emocional da criança e no modo como se processará o luto desta. Sendo assim, o presente estudo, por meio de uma metodologia clínica-qualitativa, objetivou analisar a vivência da criança que perdeu um irmão, e a repercussão dessa perda no seu desenvolvimento emocional conforme relacionada ao luto dos pais. Os participantes foram três famílias que perderam um filho por uma patologia e que tinham outro filho criança vivo. Os instrumentos utilizados foram entrevista e a aplicação do Procedimento de Desenhos de Famílias com Estórias (DF-E) com os pais, e o Teste da Casa-Árvore-Pessoa (HTP) e Teste das Fábulas com a criança, a fim de avaliar os seus psicodinamismos, bem como a estrutura familiar conforme influenciada pelo luto. Os resultados foram analisados sob uma perspectiva psicanalítica winnicottiana, por meio do método da livre inspeção do material, acrescido de contribuições contidas nos manuais do HTP e do Teste das Fábulas. Os resultados demonstraram que o trabalho de luto desenvolvido pelos pais influencia no modo como as crianças prosseguem com o seu luto e com seu desenvolvimento emocional. A perda de um irmão, em especial, desperta os sentimentos de rivalidade fraterna, o que problematiza a relação com o luto. As consequências das perdas inibem o viver criativo e espontâneo e obrigam a utilização de defesas para que seja possível continuar a viver. Os pais não conseguem atender as necessidades dos seus filhos e oferecer holding a eles, pois os sentimentos derivados das perdas inibem a sua capacidade criativa. Como consequência, eles não podem se adaptar à criatividade dos seus filhos e, assim, as crianças não conseguem ser espontâneas. Desse modo, existe um prejuízo na área da transicionalidade para ambos. Por meio do uso da criatividade, é possível viver a realidade externa, por mais dura que ela seja, proporcionando maneiras de lidar com as dificuldades e permitindo a expressão do verdadeiro self. A criatividade é, então, essencial para a elaboração do luto, por isso, se a capacidade de criar nos pais e nos filhos estiver comprometida, resta a eles negar os sentimentos derivados da experiência da perda de um ente querido. Assim, diante da dificuldade de se expressar e criar, os sentimentos derivados das perdas, nessas famílias, foram negados ou evitados, e o desenvolvimento emocional das crianças foi, então, prejudicado. / There is an innate tendency to self-development in every human being; however the environment can hinder this development. Therefore, the good enough environment, which provides holding to render possible the creative spontaneous expression of children, is necessary for the existence of their emotional development. Losing a loved one is one of the events that most affect and threaten people\'s well-being. For a child, this event and the sorrow that comes in its train are even more influential in their emotional development, especially when their family loses another child. Parents in morning influence the way that children mourn and the emotional development of the latter. This study, by means of clinical-qualitative methodology, aimed at analyzing the experience of children who lost a sibling and the consequences of the loss for his or her development according to their parent\'s grief. The research participants were three families that lost a child on account of a disease, and had another living child. The instruments used were interviews and the application of the Procedure Drawings of Families with Stories - (DF-E) according to its acronym in Portuguese - in the parents, and the application of the House-Tree-Person (HTP) and the Test of Fables in the children, in order to assess their psychodynamics as well as the family structure influenced by grief. The results were analyzed from a psychoanalytic Winnicott perspective, by means of the method of free material inspection, in addition to contributions contained in the manuals of the HTP and the Test of Fables. The results showed that the work of mourning made by the parents influences the way the children come to terms with their grief and undergo their emotional development. The loss of a sibling arouses feelings of sibling rivalry, which complicate their relationship with mourning. The consequences of the losses inhibit spontaneous, creative living and require the use of psychological defense mechanisms so that the family members can continue to live. The parents cannot meet the needs of their children and provide them with holding, because the feelings derived from the losses hamper their creative ability. As a consequence, they cannot adapt to the creativity of their children, thus the latter do not succeed in being spontaneous. Therefore, both are harmed as to experiencing transitionality. By means of being creative, living the outside reality can be possible, however hard it may be, providing ways to deal with difficulties and allowing the expression of the true self. Therefore, creativity is essential for the grief process; if the parents\' and children\'s abilities to create are impaired, their only option is to deny the feelings derived from the experience of losing a loved one. Before the difficulty in expressing themselves and creating, the feelings derived from the losses, in these families, were denied and avoided, consequently, the children\'s emoemotional development was harmed.

Abstract The aim of this population-based cohort study was to evaluate prenatal and child outcome and costs resulting from prenatal and neonatal care after in vitro fertilization (IVF) in comparison to those after natural conception using a cohort of 304 IVF exposed children born between 1990–1995 in Northern Finland, and two cohorts of unexposed control children (I: n = 569, representing general population in proportion of multiple births; II: n = 103, matched for plurality). The control children were randomly chosen from the Finnish Medical Birth Register (FMBR) and matched for sex, year of birth, area of residence, parity, maternal age and socioeconomic status. Analyses were performed by comparing the whole IVF population with controls representing general population as well as stratifying by singleton or twin status. IVF mothers carried a higher risk for vaginal bleeding, threatened preterm birth and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy than control mothers, and they used specialized antenatal care more than others. Neonatal outcome was also poorer after IVF in terms of gestational age, birthweight, morbidity and intensive care treatment. The prevalence of congenital heart malformations (septal defects) was 4-fold for IVF children in comparison to controls. The three year follow-up showed delayed growth and increased morbidity for IVF children, but their psychomotor development was similar to that of the control children. Health care costs were 1.3-fold for IVF singletons in comparison to control singletons, but for twins the costs were equal. Multiple births increased the costs ∼3-fold when compared to singleton births. IVF increased the health risks for the pregnancies and the offspring, seen mostly in the comparison between the whole IVF population and controls representing natural proportion of multiple births, indicating that multiple birth is the strongest determinant of medical outcome after IVF. The effects of fertility therapy and maternal characteristics related to infertility cannot be ruled out at this point. The increased health care costs after IVF were mostly due to the high proportion of multiple births. In order to improve the outcomes and to reduce the health care costs after IVF, the amount of multiple births should be limited to a minimum by using single embryo transfer when possible.

M.Comm. / Physical education and school sport are for the majority of students the only opportunity to be involved in physical activity and sport. In the new educational system, where physical education is being phased out due to the new teacherpupil ratios, school sport has to take over the role of physical education. The focus has shifted to school sport to fulfill the educational role, in terms of sport previously done by physical education. A case study was done at a school where the management of educationally justified school sport and physical activities was analyzed. The problem of what the management of the educationally justified school sport and physical activity would entail is seen as the central point of this study. To solve this main problem three sub-problems should be addressed, namely: • what educationally justified school sport and physical activities entail? • what the management of school sport and physical activities entail? • how the management of educationally justified school sport and physical activities manifested in a school? As a result of the problem statement, the all-encompassing aim of this study is to develop criteria for the management of educationally justified school sport and physical activities. In order to achieve this all-encompassing aim, it was necessary to: • describe the role of educationally justified school sport and physical activities~ • analyze and describe the management of school sport and physical activities; and • analyze the management of educationally justified school sport and physical activities in a school. To find possible solutions to the stated main- and sub-problems, the development of children and the role the school has to play in that development was described in the literature study. Management and all the different management functions were also described in the literature study. A case study was undertaken to analyze and describe the management of educationally justified sport and physical activities in a school. A questionnaire was compiled and handed out to the teachers involved in school sport and physical activities to complete. A structured interview was also compiled and iv the two members of the top management involved with sport and physical activities were interviewed. The following conclusions were drawn from the literature survey research: • school sport and physical activities will be educationally justified if children are led to achieving an all round development through their participation in school sport and physical activities. • it is essential that teachers realise that sport and physical activities are an extension of the classroom and it can be used as a tool in the development of children to total adulthood. • for management to be successful it needs to adhere to the following functional areas. This includes: • the marketing function; • the external relations function; • the financial function; • the human resources function; • facility and event management; • risk management. The following conclusions were drawn from the case study: • educationally justified sport and physical activities are not managed according to drawn up criteria. • some functional areas are managed properly while others don't get any attention. • a good starting point will be to set a vision and mission for school sport and physical activities. • more people could be involved in strategic management for school sport and physical activities.

M.A. / This exploratory study drew primarily upon narrative interviews and projective tests and secondarily on collateral information taken from case files from a small sample of adolescents who were institutionalised as a result of neglect and abuse. The aim of this study was to explore and develop a better understanding of the nature of attachment patterns of institutionalised adolescents by looking at how attachment abuse, maternal deprivation and institutionalisation can be detrimental to forming close relationships. The data from the clinical interviews, the Sentence Completion Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) were subjected to a thematic content analytical process. The Kinetic Family Drawing Test (KFD) was analysed using Kaplan and Main’s classification system for children’s family drawings. The Draw-a-Person Test (DAP) was analysed qualitatively, using various literature on interpreting human figure drawings but largely drawing on Machover’s interpretive system. No quantitative analyses were used in this study. The results yielded a wide range of themes related to the attachment patterns of children in children’s homes. The results of the study clearly highlighted the attachment needs of adolescents. The overall themes present in the tests are of rejection, abandonment, isolation and deprivation. The results indicated that older children who have been separated from their caregivers and placed in a children’s home because they were abused, neglected or maternally deprived, tend to be insecurely attached. The literature highlights the importance of adequate caregiving that is necessary for the child to develop a healthy sense of self and the implications if this is absent.

M.Comm. / There is a serious need for children to be informed about the negative influence of unhealthy living. Children need to be made aware ofhealthy eating habits, health risks andthebenefits ofexerciseto improvetheirhealth. The impact ofbadeating habits and little exercise needs to be emphasized in order for learners to see the importance of healthy living. The aim of this study is to identify relevant aspects from the related literature and practise, to establish emperically the health-related knowledge and behaviour of senior primary phase school children in the Honeydew area and to offer recommendations for health education for primary school children. This study is explorative ofnature. A academic research was done on the related literature on health and physical health education. Qualitative Data has been collected from three schools in the Honeydew area by means of a self-constructed questionnaire. These schools were selected due to the fact that the researcher teaches at one of the schools, and the other schools were easily accessible to the researcher. Several pilot studies were done to test the validity of the questionnaires. In order for the questionnaire to have been statistically reliable, 102 questionnaires were completed by learners from all three schools. From the data gathered the researcher came to the conclusion that learners in the Honeydew area have a reasonable general knowledge of health and they have a relatively healthy lifestyle. There are however reasons for concern in some areas and these need to be adressed. The high consumption ofeggs, salt, snacks and soft drinks may have a negative effect on the learners' health. The emotional well being of the child may have an influence on the child's eating habits. When children get depressed or bored, they eat simply because they do not have anything else to do and then they often eat chocolates or snacks like crisps. Every school has a tuck shop and even if a parent provided a nutritional lunch box for the child, the child may still buy chocolates and crisps at the tuck shop. Some parents give the learners money to buy lunch and then they buy sweets, instead. The use of alcohol, cigarettes and drugs is definitely bad for the leamer's health. Some learners were involved in unprotected sex, this is matter of serious concern. AIDS is a terrible disease that is increasing drastically daily. It is very important that learners need to be informed about health hazards to ensure a healthy lifestyle for all. Learners need to be informed about drug abuse, alcohol abuse, physical abuse and healthy eating habits to ensure that they can become healthy, contributary and responsible citizens in the future. There is a definite need for a health education programme in schools to ensure that the learners stay healthy and lead healthy lives in the future.

D.Ed. (Educational Psychology) / The aim of this study was to give an ethnographic story of the first Grade R programme in a developing school in 2010 in a black urban community and to use my story of the Grade R teaching and learning to contribute to a better understanding of the field of Early Childhood Development (ECD) and education in South Africa. This research was a response to the Department of Education’s concern that the Foundation Phase, Grade R included, does not receive the attention it deserves in South Africa. There appears to be alternative views and perspectives of what constitutes good ECD or Grade R practice. As a result, the conceptualisation of Grade R and ECD as a whole is problematic and inconsistent. This study is situated in the interpretivist naturalistic paradigm using sociocultural theory as theoretical framework. I studied the participants in a naturally occurring setting using methods of data collection which captured their social meanings and ordinary activities, whilst I participated directly in the setting in order to collect data in a systemic manner. Thutong1 a primary school established in 2010 in a black urban community, was the research site. Two Grade R classrooms were studied, comprising 60 children and two teachers. The classes were divided according to the children’s home languages, Sesotho (South Sotho) and isiZulu. The lens through which I observed the teaching and learning of the Grade R at Thutong had a sociocultural focus. Data was collected by means of participant-observation; interviews; photographs and photographic data; and artefacts. I used Brewer’s steps of analysis but they were not necessarily followed to the letter. As social phenomena were recorded and classified I compared the different data sets across categories. Atlas.ti computer software was used for qualitative data analysis and text management. Findings suggested that the Grade R language maze is central to teaching and learning of Grade R children, and this became an overarching theme. The sub-themes that were arrived at include language code switching, translation, dual medium in multilingual context, sound/letter recognition, numeracy teaching, Thutong teachers as griots, rhymes and Grade R learning, rote learning in language and numeracy, play in language acquisition, and barriers to learning and support. The diverse population of the black urban community in which the school is situated cautions stakeholders to plan carefully Grade R. In line with the sociocultural theory, a proposal for reform in Thutong would have to consider economic, political, historical, social, and cultural factors because the school is a part of and reflects the larger social system in which it is situated. The story reflects an urgent need to strengthen Early Childhood Development and education in South Africa, thus this study also addresses the need to support and promote local perspectives, questions and issues in order to move beyond the singular image of the global child. The study highlights the importance of teacher training, intense support to teachers and children by the Department of Education, children’s readiness to learn and parental involvement in language acquisition and development.